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biodiversity, evolution and disease > communicable disease > Flashcards

communicable disease Flashcards

1
Q

what is meant by infectious disease?

A

pathogens spread between people

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2
Q

what are bacteria?

A
  • prokaryotic cells
  • no membrane bound organelles or nucleus
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3
Q

What are 3 bacterial diseases?

A
  • ring rot
  • TB
  • bacterial meningitis
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4
Q

What does ring rot do and what does it affect?

A
  • damages leaves and tubers
  • affects potatoes, aubergines and tomatoes
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5
Q

what is tuberculosis do and what does it affect?

A
  • suppresses the immune system and destroys lung tissue
  • humans, cows and pigs
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6
Q

what is bacterial meningitis?

A
  • infection in the brain
  • causes sepsis and sudden death
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7
Q

what is a virus?

A
  • non living as it requires a host cell to reproduce
  • 50x smaller than bacteria
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8
Q

what is TMV?

A
  • infection in tobacco plants
  • damages fruit, leaves and flowers
  • causes stunted growth
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9
Q

what is HIV?

A
  • virus in humans that suppresses the immune system
  • targets t cells
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10
Q

what is influenza?

A
  • affects ciliated epithelium
  • leaves airways open for infection
  • prevented with a vaccine
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11
Q

what are protoctista?

A
  • eukaryotic organisms with a variety of feeding methods
  • protists that cause disease are parasites
  • need a vector to transfer them
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12
Q

what is potato blight?

A
  • hyphae penetrate host cells
  • destroys leaves and fruit
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13
Q

what is malaria?

A
  • parasite is plasmodium
  • vector is female anopheles
  • invades red blood cells and damages liver and brain
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14
Q

what is a fungus?

A
  • eukaryotic organism that cannot photosynthesise
  • saprophytic
  • parasitic
    -stop plants photosynthesising so quickly kills plant
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15
Q

what is black sigatoka?

A
  • cells are digested
  • leaves turn black
  • controlled with fungicide
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16
Q

what is athletes foot?

A
  • form of ring worm
  • grows in warm moist areas
  • antifungal creams to treat
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17
Q

what are plants physical defences against pathogens?

A
  • cellulose cell wall and thick waxy cuticle are dfficult to penetrate
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18
Q

what are plants chemical defences against pathogens?

A
  • hydrolytic enzymes break down pathogen cell wall
  • callose to break down pathogen cell wall
  • defensins break down fungal and pacterial cell walls
  • lignin to strengthen
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19
Q

what are humans physical defences against pathogens?

A

skin
- commensal bacteria compete with harmful
- sebaceous glands secrete sebum containing fatty acids which lower pH and kill baceria
- fat dead cells so cannot penetrate
mucus
- traps pathogens
- wafted out by cilia
- secreted by goblet cells
stomach acid
- kills pathogens due to low pH

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20
Q

what are some processes in the non specific immune system?

A
  • blood clotting
  • phagocytosis
  • inflammation response
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21
Q

what is the process of blood clotting?

A
  • platelets move to site
  • adhere to endothelium and collagen and become activated to form a platelet plug
  • two substances are released:
    thromboplastin- enzyme that catalyses prothrombin into thrombin
    serotonin - contracts muscles around wound to close it
  • ca2+ is the cofactor that activates inactive prothrombin
  • fibrinogen (soluble pplasma protein) is converted to insoluble fibrin molecules
  • clot forms and dries into a scab
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22
Q

what is the process of phagocytosis?

A
  • pathogens produce chemicals that attract phagocytes
  • recognised ans non self
  • pathogen and phagocyte meet
  • pseudopodia on phagocyte surround and ingest by endocytosis
  • enclosed by a vacuole called phagosome
  • lysosome fuses with vacuole to form a phagolysosome
  • pathogen ins digested and excreted via exocytosis
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23
Q

what is the inflammation response?

A
  • mast cells release histamines and cytokines
  • vasodilation occurs and increases blood flow so more WBC’s, antibodies and plasma reach infected tissue
  • histamines make vessels more permeable so more plasma leaks and becomes tissue fluid which causes swelling
  • cytokines attract phagocytes
  • these destroy pathogens
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24
Q

what happens after phagocytosis (specific response)?

A
  • phagocytosis produces an APC(antigen presenting cell) from a macrophage
  • travels to lymph nodes and lymphocytes respond
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25
Q

how do B lymphoctes respond?

A
  • humoral response
  • B cell has antigen receptors on its surface complementary to only one antigen
  • clonal selection of correct B cell occurs due to T-helper cell
  • releases interleukins to activate B cell
  • clonal expansion causes them to divide by mitosis and differentiate into plasma cells which produce antibodies that are specific to antigen, and memory B cells which stay in the body ready to provide a secondary response
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26
Q

how do T lymphocytes respond?

A
  • receptors have a similar structure to antibodies
  • T helper cells release interleukins which increaser phagocytic activity and trigger B cells to divide
  • T killer cells/cytotoxic T cells search for APC’s and attach to antigens and release perforin which creates holes in cell surface membrane which trigger apoptosis
  • T regulatory prevent cells from attacking non infected cells by shutting down immune system
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27
Q

what are antibodies?

A

globular proteins that bind to antigens

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28
Q

explain the delay between infection and antibody production

A
  • clonal selection must take place to find the right receptors on B cells
  • mitosis and differentiation of B cells into plasma cells must take place
  • antibodies are proteins so protein synthesis will take time to occur
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29
Q

what are the functions of antibodies?

A

defense - prevents toxins or virus entering host cell
immobilise - attach to flagella
agglutination - causes antibody-antigen complexes to clump together to prevent reproduction
lysis - activate the complement system to destroy bacterial cells
oppsonisation - pathogens coat in antibodies for recognisation
antitoxins - neutralise toxins from bacteria

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30
Q

what is the secondary response?

A
  • immunological memory
  • memory B+T cells provide a faster response
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31
Q

why is secondary response faster than primary response?

A
  • primary response involves clonal selection and expansion
  • memory B + T cells are already present in secondary response so faster
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32
Q

What is an autoimmune disease?

A

abnormal immune response against tissues normally in the body due to the immune system no longer recognising ‘self’ antigens

33
Q

3 examples of autoimmune disease

A

T1D - affects insulin secretion and is treated with injections
rheumatoid arthritis -joints in hands and feet
lupus - skin and major organs

34
Q

what are the chemicals involvedin the immune system?

A
  • complement
  • interleukins
  • opsonins
  • cytokines
  • interferons
35
Q

What is complement?

A
  • proteins in blood plasma
  • disrupt bacterial cell membranes
  • cause cell lysis
  • complement cascade enhances ability to clear microbes from an organism
36
Q

what are opsonins?

A

they bind to antigens on pathogens and assists binding to phagocytes

37
Q

what are interleukins?

A

cytokine that participates in clonal selection, expansion and differentiation of immune cells

38
Q

what are cytokines?

A

cell signalling molecules released by immune cells to help regulate the immune response

39
Q

what are interefons?

A
  • trigger t cells and signal immune system
  • proteins that are part of your natural defence system
40
Q

what is active immunity?

A

antigens triggering a specific immune reaction which produces antibodies and memory cells

41
Q

example of active natural immunity

A

exposure

42
Q

example of active artificial immunity

A

vaccination

43
Q

what is passive immunity?

A

acquired without and immune response
- no antibodies or memory cells are produced

44
Q

example of passive natural immunity

A

placenta/colostrum

45
Q

example of passive artificial immunity

A

injections

46
Q

where is penicillin sourced and what is it?

A
  • mould on melons
  • antibiotic
47
Q

what is docetaxel and where is it found?

A
  • yew trees
  • treatment of breast cancer
48
Q

what is aspirin and where is it found?

A
  • painkiller and anti-inflammatory
  • willow bark
49
Q

what is digoxin and where is it found?

A
  • heart drug for atrial fibrillation
  • foxgloves
50
Q

where are antibiotics usually found?

A

fungi

51
Q

why will it become difficult to discover new drugs in the future?

A

-new drugs come from plants
- biodiversity is reducing as habitats are being destroyed for fuels

52
Q

what do medicines derive from?

A
  • plants
  • microorganisms
53
Q

what are antibiotics?

A
  • drugs used to treat bacterial infections
  • effective against prokaryotes and dont affect eukaryotic cells
54
Q

what are the two types of antibiotic?

A

bactericidal - kills
bacteriostatic - slows growth

55
Q

how does antibiotic resistance occur?

A
  • in presence of antibiotics, bacteria with resistance to antibiotics are favourable
  • they survive and pass on the mutation
  • this gives rise to a population of antibiotic resistance
56
Q

what are some ways that antibiotic resistance can come about?

A
  • gene mutation
  • change in base triplet code in DNA
57
Q

how is antibiotic resistance prevented?

A
  • complete course
  • only use when needed
  • infection control
58
Q

what is synthetic biology?

A
  • involves assembling an entire genome
  • use new or existing sequences
59
Q

what are pharmacogenetics?

A
  • tailoring medical treatment to each person
  • analyses genome and its response to drugs
60
Q

how can an effective vaccine produce active immunity to a disease?

A
  • injected with an attenuated/dead/weakened form of the antigen
  • causes an immune response
  • memory B and T cells are produced in clonal expansion
  • they remain in the body and provide a faster response upon infection hence no symptoms
61
Q

what are the two types of vaccination?

A

live attenuated - weakened version of pathogen
inactivated - killed

62
Q

what are the cons of vaccinations?

A

antigens:
drift - small changes to structure
shift - major changes
conceal - hide in cells or coat of host proteins
cross breed - create new strains

63
Q

what is herd immunity?

A
  • vaccinate most people so the minority who arent vaccinated dont get ill
64
Q

what is ring immunity?

A
  • people who work with vulnerable are vaccinated so they dont pass it on
65
Q

what is a vaccine?

A

a safe form of an antigen which provides an immune response

66
Q

why are booster vaccines necessary?

A
  • number of memory cells decreases over time
  • booster repenishes memory cells for a faster immune repsonse
67
Q

why hasnt a malaria vaccine been created?

A
  • different strains of plasmodium keep occurring due to mutations
  • new vaccine per new strain
  • parasites can conceal in cells and so are only exposed for a short amount of time
68
Q

suggest two ways frankincense contributes to defending the tree from pathogens

A
  • prevents pathogens entering via the damaged bark
  • aromatic compound is antibacterial
69
Q

how do traditional remedies provide a strong argument for the conservation of biodiversity?

A
  • plants have medical benefits
  • medicines derive from plants
70
Q

what bond is found in antibodies and what is its function?

A

disulfide bridges hold the light and heavy chains together

71
Q

what are the adaptations of neutrophils?

A
  • many lysosomes and hydrolytic enzymes to digest waste produced by pathogen engulfing
  • multilobed nucleus and can change shape to aid movement
72
Q

name two barrier defences which help prevent entry of pathogens in animals

A

skin and mucous membranes

73
Q

name two chemical secretions which help prevent entry of pathogens in animals

A

lysozymes and stomach acid

74
Q

what are the two methods of direct transmission of pathogens between animals?

A

droplets or direct contact

75
Q

what are the two methods of indirect transmission of pathogens between animals?

A

vectors and ingestion of contaminated food and water

76
Q

name three factors which can increase the chances of transmission of a communicable disease between animals

A
  • malnutrition
  • overcrowding
  • weakened immune system
77
Q

What are the two methods of indirect transmission of pathogens between plants?

A

vectors and soil contamination

78
Q

name three factors which can increase the chances of transmission of a communicable disease between plants

A
  • overcrowding
  • mineral deficiency
  • damp and warm conditions
79
Q

state five ways farmers and growers control the transmission of a communicable disease between plants

A
  • crop rotation
  • thorough cleaning of equipment
  • controlling insect vectors
  • leaving more space or gaps between growing plants
  • removing plant material from soil after harvesting

biodiversity, evolution and disease (3 decks)

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