Cold environments (Alaska)

Question 1

Where is Alaska located?

Answer 1

The case I have studied is Alaska, a state of the USA in the north west of North America west of Canada and east of the Pacific Ocean. Located in the artic circle it experiences mostly tundra conditions, with varying high amounts of precipitation and low temperatures year round.

Question 2

List 4 opportunities made by Alaska economic development:

Answer 2

Fishing
Energy development (oil extraction)
Mineral extraction
Tourism

Question 3

Discuss fishing’s efficacy:

Answer 3

Due to Alaska’s vast coastline of 10,686 km, 3,000 rivers and 3 million lakes, Alaska has a natural abundance in fish such as pollock and salmon, which are popular in many diets. Operating the industry promoted the employment of over 80,000 people, socially improving Alaska’s population, as people can afford a better quality of life.

Since it makes up $8 billion of its economy, fishing has also contributed to a positive multiplier effect, as the money gets invested back through taxes to improve healthcare and education.

Many indigenous tribes also use fishing as a source of oil, food and clothing, the variety of political views has helped Alaska’s fisheries to be a sustainable business being influenced by subsistence fishing, which enables the industry to thrive in the future and to prevent harm of its natural environment. Therefore fishing is an environmentally beneficial industry as it allows Alaska’s economic growth without harming the future.

Question 4

Discuss mineral extraction’s efficacy:

Answer 4

There are many minerals extracted from Alaska including: gold, coal, zinc.
Mineral exports are worth 35% of Alaska’s exports, and the money earned is then invested back into the country.
It employs many people, including the indigenous, who earn more than double the average, which helps with the pricy essentials such as food due to the mineral plant’s distance from producers.

Question 5

Discuss energy development’s efficacy:

Answer 5

One third of Alaska’s income relies on the oil reserves found in the north, employing 100,000 people and paying them 2.5 times more the average wage in the state earning $2000 a year to withstand the harsh living conditions the job comes with. this money can be used to afford a better quality of life and increases the amount of tax governments receive to then invest in the multiplier effect. The oil found there cannot be transport by large oil tanker ships due to the sea ice.

Question 6

Discuss tourism’s efficacy:

Answer 6

due to Alaska’s landscape consisting of mountains, lakes and glaciers, it attracts over 2 million tourists per year, 60% of which arrive via cruise. This has led to 1/8 of people working in the tourism industry creating a positive multiplier effect as tourists are willing to spend their money of holiday, this money then will be investing on the preservation and bettering of this industry.

however, events such as the pandemic have severely impacted this industry.

Question 7

What are some adaptations to the trans-Alaskan pipeline:

Answer 7

built in a zig zag shape and on shifting posts to allow the pipeline to move up and down and laterally in the event of an earthquake, reducing the risk of the pipe cracking and leaking oil, which would severely damage the fragile ecosystem.

Question 8

what are the 3 challenges of cold environments:

Answer 8

-extreme temperatures
-inaccessibility
-infrastructure/ buildings

Question 9

explain the challenges of extreme temperatures

Answer 9

Adapting to the extreme cold temperatures is very hard for Inuit communities further more recent settlers, the extremity has made crop production impossible to happen due to the lack of sunlight and permafrost meaning that settled habitations in the northern interior of Alaska impossible.

Question 10

explain the challenges of infrastructure and building

Answer 10

providing buildings and infrastructure that can cope with the varying densities of the ground is very difficult and expensive. Many settlements produce lots of heat which melt the permafrost beneath them, resulting them to subside into the ground as ice loses its volume as it melts, especially for early 1800 settlements.

Question 11

explain the challenges of inaccessibility

Answer 11

Solifluction happens in the summer, when then top fertile layer of soil and mud start to slip off the surface of the impermeable frozen layer, resulting in mass landslides that can form masses of mud that block roads and important highways which are used for transportation for months.

Question 12

what are 4 strategies used to manages cold environments:

Answer 12

-use of technology (trans-alaskan pipeline)
-action by governments
-international agreements
-conservation groups

Question 13

explain the strategy of the use of technology regarding the trans-alaskan pipeline

Answer 13

Using technology to better the trans-alaskan pipeline allows oil to be transported whilst ecologically protecting the environment (species migrations and geology) from potential accidents sustainably.
The trans-alaskan pipeline has been built so any potential interferences wouldn’t result in an oil spill that would destroy the fragile ecosystem. For example, to avoid interrupting carbon migration, the pipeline was raised so it doesn’t intercept with nature. additionally, they are made of metal and lined, designed to insulate the heat of the oil and prevent it from escaping into the surrounding, so that the permafrost doesn’t melt and make the foundations of the pipe unstable.

on the other hand, these pipes are ugly and many companies spend millions on new technology such as thermosiphons.

Question 14

explain the strategy of conservation groups

Answer 14

Companies such as world wildlife fund and green space collectively supports ecosystems though have limited power because governments can over rule and decide what to do with the land and are hard to enforce.

Greenspace makes resources off limits banning exhausting strategies such as oil extraction from specific areas encouraging the environment to thrive.
WWF takes a more social approach, teaming up with natives and companies to educate locals on how to manage the ecosystems as well as using science to preserve the endangered.

Question 15

explain the strategy of international agreements

Answer 15

these are treaties that are signed between nations as promises to make an effort as a population to follow certain rules.

For example the antarctic treaty between 12 nations has promised to limit economic activity, prioritising the consequences of climate change above it to preserve Antarctica as the continent doesn’t have its own government to protect itself.

however, due to the fact that it includes the approval of all 12 nations, one agreement could be denied for all nations if only one objects.

Question 16

explain the strategy of actions by governments

Answer 16

Governments can enforce laws on certain companies, legally binding them to follow these laws such as the National environment policy (involving oil extraction and transportation) act and western Arctic reserve .

however, these laws are very hard to enforce as it doesn’t fully prevent these laws from being broken, as it results in a fine which most companies are fine paying. In addition, its hard to find balance between different views, the needs and wants of the indigenous and companies, as well as different governments having different views on how to cultivate the land.

Question 17

how is oil a threat to cold environments?

Answer 17

Oil spills caused by ships such as the Exxon Valdez oil tanker, can leak oil into the sea, 1.2 million barrels were spilt, 15% of which was recovered, resulting in most of the oil ending up on shores near the coast and many animal habitats being polluted for years, many seagulls, seals and otters died due to this contamination of their water. Oil can also spill on land, which in Alaska is very threatening as the land doesn’t recover quickly from any changes in the environment due to their abundance of interdependence.

Question 18

how is tourism a threat to cold environments?

Answer 18

Increasingly, more tourists arrive to Alaska per year, bringing many people mostly from richer countries such as the USA and Britain from cruises. These cruises and boats would normally stop in certain honey pot sites which would disturb animal feeding and breeding, discouraging an abundant ecosystem, the littler left behind tourists also brings a risk on animal lives even though ships are legally obligues to discharge of waste away from Antarctica.. Additionally, there have been several oil spills from these boats, further damaging the coast lines habitats which take years to return to normal.

Question 19

how is climate change a threat to cold environments?

Answer 19

Alaska’s tundra like conditions with strong interdependence results in a very vulnerable climate to climate change, where any fluctuation in temperature may altar entire food chains. Additionally, cold environments warm up faster than other biomes, as ice melts it lowers its albedo, meaning less insolation is reflected back to space, melting the ice, revealing the darker surfaces beneath which will absorb this heat energy.

Question 20

Describe a climate graph of a tundra climate

Answer 20

A climate graph that has a differing seasonal temperature change that goes below and above 0 degrees Celsius
The precipitation is low and varying in seasons, mostly follow the temperature line graph height (highest volume being in summer and lowest in winter)

Question 21

What does solifluction mean?

Answer 21

When the active layer of soil thaws in warmer conditions, and eventually starts to deposit elsewhere by slipping on the permafrost.

Question 22

Describe a climate graph of a polar climate:

Answer 22

The temperature fluctuates a bit but remains below 0 degrees Celsius
Precipitation varies with the lowest volume being at summer and highest at winter

Question 23

What are the challenges of Alaska- a cold environment: (4)

Answer 23

Extreme temperatures:
- The extreme temperatures reaching below -20℃ and the short periods of daylight make it hard for the indigenous such as the Inuit and other settlers to live as strong winds and snow can cause severe frostbite.

Inaccessibility:
- Solifluction occurs in summer, where the active soil layer thaws and starts to slip away on the permafrost surface. This causes the mud and soil to be deposited in other places such as roads, which blocks pathways of transportation especially in valleys for months.

Buildings:
- Providing a town with durable buildings and housing against the soft and frozen fluctuations of the ground is very expensive, this is because many houses from early establishments in the 1880’s are prone to sub-ducting. When the ice becomes warmer it starts to melt and shrinks in size, in winter when its colder people use the central heating which further melts the permafrost, making it more susceptible to sub-ducting.

Infrastructure:
-due to the shorter day periods, construction can only occur in summer where working conditions are more bearable. insulated water source and sewage pipes have to be suspended above the ground to prevent them from freezing from being on the permafrost and melting it from its heat. the varying temperatures that cause melting and freezing permafrost also sever electrical cables, causing power cuts.

Question 24

How are animals adapted to withstand tundra conditions?

Question 25

Describe ways how plants are adapted to withstand tundra conditions: (8)

Answer 25

-small leaves-
-grow close to the ground-
-found in clusters-
-shallow and wide roots-
-able to reproduce/ make seeds easily-
-able to photosynthesis in extreme cold conditions-
-dark leaves-
-covered in small hairs-