COGS 110 Final Flashcards
1
Q
Thinking
A
going beyond the information given
2
Q
Reasoning
A
drawing a conclusion based on some given information in accordance with boundary conditions specified by a task
3
Q
Deductive Reasoning
A
Top down -test or confirm general statements -if;then;but;therefore
4
Q
Inductive reasoning
A
bottom up approach -detect patterns -makes broad generalizations from specific observations
5
Q
Formal Reasoning tasks
A
-all premises are supplied in the problem -problems are self-contained -there is typically one correct answer -unambiguous when the problem is solved -content of the problem is of limited, academic interest -problems are often solved for their own sake
6
Q
Formal Reasoning
A
-Form of argument matters -logical -considered hallmark of mature and scientific thinking -piaget: hallmark of formal operational stage
7
Q
Inductive Inferences
A
Depends on the number of observations and the nature of the property being projected
8
Q
Analogical Reasoning
A
Understanding new problems in terms of familiar ones -ignore superficial similarities and focusing on underlying parallel relationships -piaget suggested that analogical reasoning didnt emerge until adolescence
9
Q
Analogical Reasoning is impacted by:
A
Age Knowledge Meta cognition
10
Q
Syllogistic Reasoning
A
logical connections between unrelated points -according to piaget, did not develop until concrete operational stage
11
Q
Scientific Thinking
A
Thinking in terms of abstractions or symbols, being able to think about many variables or dimensions at the same time, being able to think in terms of probabilities and proportions
12
Q
Bayesian reasoning
A
making decisions under uncertainty
13
Q
Theories of Language Acquisition
A
Nativist Theories (Chomsky) Constructivist Theories (Tomasello)
14
Q
Nativist Theories
A
-Chomsky -children born with innate kanguage skills (universal grammar) -Language Acquisition Device (LAD): hypothetical brain mechanism
15
Q
Constructivist Theories
A
-Tomasello -kids acquire language through interaction with the environment, people, and usage of other cognitive and social processes
16
Q
Beginning of cooperative communication
A
10-12 months -infants use joint attention ot communicate -often point to things
17
Q
Theories of word learning
A
statistical learning social learning
18
Q
Halophrase
A
one unit utterances with intonation and communicative purpose
19
Q
Evidence for nativist theory (language is innate)
A
-novel phrases -children dont make certain grammatical errors -errors they do make are not likely learned —-but have not found LAD in brain
20
Q
Evidence for behaviorist approaches: language is reinforced
A
-kids correct their mistakes -much learning is through association BUT kids generally correct their own errors, even without feedback
21
Q
Innteractionist aprroach
A
language is both biological and social -kids are motivatied to learn lang through a desire to communicate with others
22
Q
relationship between language and thought
A
symbolic function
23
Q
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
A
language shapes and may even determine the way people of a certain culture perceive and understand the world
24
Q
Cryptotypes
A
semantic differences were caused by the differences between each languages’ grammatical form classes -we dont think about them but they represent how we think about the world - Not a formal rule, but just something that you don’t say Ex: un — uncover, uncoil. But you don’t say unbreak
25
Sociolect
the way we see the world may be influenced by the kind of lang we use -the lang used primarily by members of a particular social group -emphasis on the social context of language
26
Colors viewed in ___ will be MORE affected by language because of influence of language areas of the brain
RVF language is in Left
27
Discrimination of within-category colors in the ___ will be faster because there is less language influence
LVF processed by the right hemisphere
28
specificity hypothesis
linguistic input is a cue to pay attention to certain pieces of info cognitive development is related to semantic development
29
Contronym
a word with two opposite meanings
30
mentalese
“The hypothetical language of thought, or representation of concepts and propositions in the brain, in which ideas, including the meanings of words and sentences, are couched.”
31
Current views of age-related differences on deductive reasoning tasks suggest that these changes are the result of:
changes in inhibition and memory, specifically working memory capacity and the availability and efficiency of the retrieval of long-term memory
32
Current definitions of scientific thinking include:
hypothesis testing thinking in terms of statistics and probabilities recognizing multiple variables at the same time
33
Which theory claims that all learning is the result of reward for correct speech and punishment for incorrect speech?
Behaviorism
34
The most popular current developmental theory describes influeces on child development in terms of _______ perspective
a dynamic systems or interactionist perspective
35
Johnathon has begun to display temper tantrums whenever he is not allowed to have his way. A developmental psychologist is most likely to call on _______ to provide the most effective way to understand and explain Jonathan's behavior.
a theory
36
Today, most psychologists would agree that _______________ contribute to a certain degree to different aspects of development
both nature and nurture
37
Dr. Jefferson has written a book for parents entitled "How to Toilet Train Your Child Quickly and Easily." She instructs parents to give the child a small gift each time he/she uses the toilet successfully. This technique for toilet training is most obviously influenced by a ______ approach to development.
behaviorist learning theory
38
Each time Tommy hits his sister, his mom punishes him with a time-out and he is not allowed to play with his toys. According to behaviorist learning theory, the time-out is a type of _______ punishment and is most likely to result in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Negative punishment results in a decrease of Tommy's behavior
39
Duane went to see a karate movie. Now he moves around his house attempting to kick his siblings. Duane's behavior is easily explained by the process of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
observational learning
40
Kevin, who lives with his mother and father, is 4 years old. When he visits a preschool friend, he expects that family to have both a mother and a father in the household as well. Kevin has established a ________ for what makes up a family
schema
41
When Marissa's infant gets an object in her hand, she puts it in her mouth and trues to suck it. Marissa's infant is _________ new objects into her sucking schema
assimilating
42
Hugo was called on by his teacher to recite a poem that the class has been studying for several days. Prior to class, he had rehearsed the poem over and over. How Hugo was able to remember and recite the poem would be of great interest to a _______ theorist
information-processing theorist
43
Lucia is an adolescent who is very concerned about who she is and what she will become in the future. Lucia's search for her identity is a primary concern in _______ theory of development
Erikson's psychosocial theory
44
In this psychological approach, gene/gene interaction, gen/environment interaction, and crucially, the process of ontogeny (pre- and post-natal development) are all considered to play a vital role in how the brain progressively sculpts itself and how it gradually becomes specialized over developmental time.
Neuroconstructivism
45
The major theoreitcal approaches that have placed greatest emphasis on describing development in terms of discontinuous stages are _____ and ______ theories
Piagetian and psychosocial theories
46
Ricky lives on a farm and frequently feeds the ducks that swim in a pond near his house. Recently he found duck eggs that had been abandoned by the mother duck and brought them home to hatch. He kept them warm, and when they hatched, Ricky was the first thing the ducks saw. Since then, the ducklings follow Ricky everywhere around the farm. The ducks follow Ricky because they:
they have become imprinted to him
47
Linda had difficulty learning to read when she began formal schooling. This was most probably because her parents did not like to read and did not own any books. According to the bioecological model of development, problems at the level of the ___ were responsible for her reading difficulties.
microsystem
48
In Pavlov’s research, dogs learned that the sound of a metronome predicted the arrival of food, so the dogs salivated at the sound of the metronome. In this research, the metronome is the _____________ and salivation in response to the metronome is the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
conditioned stimulus conditioned response
49
. Whenever baby Colin cries, his mother gives him a pacifier. This stops Colin from crying. In turn, this makes Colin’s mother give him a pacifier more often. In this example, getting a pacifier serves as a _______ reinforcer for Colin. Colin stopping crying is a _______ reinforcer for his mother.
positive negative
50
Fatima is a new student on campus. Everywhere she goes, she is asked for her 12-digit student number. To memorize her new student number, she thinks of it as three different years. Fatima is using __________ to improve her memory.
chunking
51
Classical conditioning usually involves \_\_\_\_\_\_behavior, while operant conditioning usually involves more complicated, behavior.
reflexive spontaneous
52
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ receive messages from other cells, and at their opposite end there is a long extension called a(n) ________ which carries the messages.
dendrites axon
53
Toby moved with his family just before he entered fourth grade. In ecological systems theory, the move represents a change in Toby’s _______ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
mesosystem and exosystem
54
Larry was daydreaming and only partly paying attention the day that his first-grade teacher first taught the math lesson that 5 + 5 = 10. Later, Larry was not able to recall this information, probably because:
he never encoded it
55
Children with _____ often show a lack of empathy and are delayed at passing passing TOM taks when compared to age and IQ matched controls or kids with down syndrome
ASD
56
What brain regions are involved in the TOM network
the right and left tempro-parietal junction, medial prefrontal cortex and superior temporal sulci
57
. Rhonda, a 5-year-old, is given a false belief test. She is told that Sally put a marble in a basket. While Sally was out of the room, Anne moved the marble to a box. What is Rhonda most likely to respond when asked where Sally will look for her marble?
in the basket
58
According to Meltzoff, when imitating the actions of another person, a baby is recognizing that the imitator is “like me” based on \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
structural contingency
59
Research on the development of empathy that has found that people who rate\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ in empathy are more likely to nonconsciously imitate the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
emotional expressions of others
60
Evidence for the role language in passing TOM tasks comes from: (3) reasons
-Kids with ASD require much higher verbal ability to pass TOM taks that typically developing kids or kids with intellectual disabilities -deaf kids of hearing and non-signing parents are delayed on TOM tasks whereas deaf kids of deaf, signing parents are not delayed -exposure to mental state language improves kid's performance on TOM taks
61
Social Referencing
intentional search for information about others' feelings to help explain the meaning of uncertain circumstances and events
62
Some research for individuals with ASD has found differences relative to controls in \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
physical size of the brain
63
What do kids use to reason about whether an object is animate or inanimate?
=whether the object has face-like features -whether the object makes sounds that are contingent on social cues -whether the object engages in goal-directed action
64
What evidence supports Theory Theory as opposed to Simulation Theory
The salience of our own mental state info influences our judgements of other people's mental states
65
TOM is best defined as the ability to
attribute mental states(beliefs, desired and intentions) to oneself and others, and the knowledge that these mental states may differ between onself and others
66
18 month olds will imitate the surface features of actions performed by ______ and the goal of the actions performed by _______ (even if the goal wasnt accomplished in modeling)
surface feature actions of inanimate objects goals of animate objects
67
What predicts how well a child will do on TOM tasks later in life? (2)
infants attention to intentional actions at 10-12 months AND their exposure to mental state language
68
In the not-own-desire task, Repacholi and Gopink (1997) found that 14 month olds reason ____ but 18 month olds understand that the experimenter may have \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
egocentrically 18 moth olds understand that the experimenter may have desires different than the infant's own
69
Eight-month-old Elisha’s crib is located near a large mirror on her dresser, yet Elisha barely ever stops to look at herself in the mirror. On the other hand, her 18-month-old sister, Amanda, stops regularly to gaze at herself as she walks around near the full-length bathroom mirror. What is the likely reason that Amanda looks at the mirror but Elisha does not?
Amanda has developed self-awareness or knowledge of herself, but Elisha has not.
70
e Active Intermodal Mapping (AIM) theory of imitation
There is a dedicated, innate imitation mechanism that transforms visual input from a model into a supramodel representation as a set of bodily relations. Then in a goal-directed selection process, this supramodel representation is compared with proprioceptive feedback from the observer’s motor output, and also encoded as a set of bodily relations. The closest match of the first representation are favored for future production.
71
People with ASD have ________ amygdalas
larger
72
When processing information in a human face, people with ASD rely on the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, typically used to process objects, rather than the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, typically used to process faces
temporal gyrus fusiform gyrus
73
People with ASD rarely have ________ or are savants
splinter skills (intellectually skilled in one academic area)
74
Treatments for ASD
`reciprocal imitation training (RIT) applied behavioral analysis (ABA\_ early intensive behavioral training and environmental enrichment
75
The results of the magic shrinking machine study (Simcock & Haynes, 2003) suggested that:
Young children’s memory may be better than previously thought, if measured using nonverbal methods.
76
What factors increase the number and quality of young children’s early autobiographical memories (before age 5)?
Parents with an elaborate reminiscing style.
77
Memories are considered declarative if they pass through the parameter filter. This means that:
performance on tasks of declarative memory must be influenced by retention interval, study duration, and context changes, whereas performance on implicit tasks are not.
78
Some investigators have argued that _____________ undergoes few, if any, developmental changes during the preschool through early school years
recognition or implicit memory
79
What is true about effective methods to reduce false memories and inaccuracy in children’s eyewitness recollection during police questioning?
Memory is improved if children draw a picture of the event before talking about it with a neutral interviewer.
80
What brain region is highly associated with emotional moral reasoning in typically functioning adults, and show less activation during moral reasoning tasks in psychopaths?
Posterior cingulate cortex.
81
Responding to personal moral dilemmas produced increased activity in areas associated with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, whereas responding to impersonal and non-moral dilemmas produced increased activity in areas associated with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
social/emotional processing working memory
82
memory development in old age
Older adults tend to remember more positive events than negative events. Older adults recruit more neural resources when processing memories, and their brain activity may be less lateralized than in young adults. Older adults have better strategies to compensate for declines in processing speed
83
Studies of the effect of content knowledge on memory have found that young children who are experts in chess:
have better memory for chess-board positions, but perform worse on memory tasks that do not involve chess (e.g., digit recall).
84
social conventional judgments.
Judgments that pertain to societal customs
85
Guilt and shame are different in that:
Shame is more likely to arise from nonmoral situations and problems and primarily involve concern about others’ evaluations, whereas guilt is a more moral emotion and associated with later prosocial behaviors.
86
Children in Piaget's stage of autonomous morality believe that rules are:
the product of social interaction
87
Research on exposure to violence in the media suggests that children who viewed more violence on television:
displayed less advanced moral reasoning than children who did not watch violent television.
88
Evidence that children’s moral reasoning is associated with theory of mind development comes from studies that found:
young children are less likely to take intention into account when assigning blame to an individual.
89
The brain regions associated with declarative memory are:
hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.
90
According to Piaget, the mechanism of development of moral reasoning is
interaction with peers and playing games.
91
What type of moral education is based on Kohlberg’s theory of moral development?
Cognitive moral education.
92
A child responds to the Heinz dilemma that Heinz should steal the drug because his wife “might return the favor some day” (Gibbs et al., 1983). In which of Kohlberg’s stages would this child’s response be classified?
Stage 2: Instrumental and exchange orientation
93
When matching the facial expression to the content of a story:
) Children expect “cool” affect (more neutral) in scenarios based on social conventional norms, and “hot” affects (more emotionality) in scenarios that involve moral norms.
94
A person responds to the Heinz dilemma that Heinz should sacrifice himself and risk going to jail to save his wife’s life. In which of Gilligan’s stages would this person’s response be classified?
conventional
95
The following are two arguments given in Congress regarding whether the US should have gotten involved in the first Iraq war. Which of Kohlberg’s stages do these quotes represent? 1) "even though the situation is bad, war is damaging to people and property and society agrees that is bad...” 2) “the situation is extreme enough that society's rights are threatened and need to be defended..."
Both Quotes 1 and 2 represent Stage 5 thinking.
96
. Current views of scientific reasoning posit that developmental changes are related to:
Learning through practice and instruction on different types of tasks
97
Young infants integrate multiple sources of information (probabilities, spatial information, and time) when making inferences about the outcome of events. This statement is evidence of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
evidence of Bayesian reasoning in infants, based on the Teglas and colleagues (2011) study
98
Studies of functional fixedness and insight have found that priming ________ improves \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Priming on creativity (by playing creatively before the reasoning task) improves performance on tasks that generally elicit functional fixedness.
99
Current definitions of scientific thinking include
a) Hypothesis-testing. b) Thinking in terms of statistics and probabilities. c) Thinking abstractly and in symbols, recognizing multiple variables at the same time.
100
What describes preschool-age children’s ability to test hypotheses and reason about cause-and-effect relationships?
Preschool-age children understand screening-off and test hypotheses to figure out cause-andeffect relationships.
101
What improves young children’s performance on syllogistic reasoning tasks?
Framing the task in the context of fantasy or pretend play
102
The difference(s) between formal/academic reasoning tasks and everyday reasoning tasks are:
a) Formal reasoning relies on logical consequences more than empirical evidence. b) Everyday reasoning problems are more focused on content and the most likely outcome rather than an absolute outcome based on formal rules. c) Adults struggle on formal reasoning tasks and are better at everyday reasoning tasks
103
The Whorfian hypothesis of Linguistic Determinism suggests that language:
creates thought and experience.
104
linguistic relativity says that:
language creates thought and experience. c) guides our thought and experience but does not create them per se.
105
Specificity Hypothesis of language and cognitive development proposes that language provides a \_\_\_\_\_
language input provides a cue to pay attention to certain pieces of information or relationships.
106
Studies of color perception (e.g., Gilbert et al, 2006) provide evidence for \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
linguistic relativity-- Language does affect how we perceive color, but non-linguistic thought is also possible.
107
Studies that looked at shape classifiers in Navajo vs. English, and color words in Dani vs. English consistently found:
MIXED evidence for linguistic relativity: in each of the studies, language affected performance on sorting or color-discrimination tasks in some instances but not in others.
108
What evidence support a domain-specific argument of language and cognition?
There is evidence from language disorders, such as in grammatical Specific Language Impairment, that language specifically can be impaired without affecting other areas of cognition (i.e., typically developing thinking, reasoning, memory)
109
Recent evidence suggests that intelligence and language change across generations is
Verbal IQ scores INCREASE across generations when taking into account the prevalence of a word’s usage
110
What conclusions about the role of understanding intention in language development has been drawn by researchers who study the processes of language acquisition (e.g., Tomasello, 2001) and on the interaction between language and cognition in Autism Spectrum Disorders?
Understanding intentions may help in word learning, but other logical reasoning processes are important and can explain language development in the absence of social understanding.
111
The results from a recent study of the amygdala indicate that previous fMRI studies of amygdala should be _____ to consider the role of _______ through veins that might be confused with blood flow to the amygdala
reinterpreted blood flow
112
Piaget claimed that object permanence is: (3)
developmentally acquired protracted development object knowledge emerges in stages
113
Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage & Object Knowledge •stage 2: schemes become more attuned to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_. Objects are ______ linked to infants' actions
environment schemes are not directed as objects infant will track an object until it disappears objects are IMAGES
114
Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage & Object Permanence •Stage 3: Behavior is more \_\_\_\_\_\_oriented
externally Behavior is not intentional yet objects are THINGS linked to infants' actions
115
Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage & Object Permanence • Stage 4 Coordination of \_\_\_\_\_. \_\_\_\_behavior emerges In the A not B task: infants persist in searching at the ______ location
coordination of schemes intentional, goal-directed behavior emerges -Infants search for hidden objects but still connect object to own actions - 70% of Stage 4 infants commit A not B error first hiding location
116
Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage & Object Permanence • Stage 5
• Active trial and error exploration • Successful search at location B in A not B task, but can’t yet appreciate invisible displacement
117
Piaget: Sensorimotor Stage & Object Permanence • Stage 6 Object concept achieved!
• Mental processes that are completely independent of overt action (symbolic functioning) - Success on invisible displacement tasks
118
infants who pass VoE tasks can:
formulate rules or hypotheses • revise and elaborate these hypotheses, and • regard events as anomalous or surprising
119
The Core Knowledge Hypothesis
• Infants object knowledge does not arise from actions on the environment • Infants are innately endowed with a small number of object principles: 1. Cohesion (objects moves as connected and bounded wholes) 2. Continuity (objects move on unobstructed paths) 3. Contact (objects do not interact at a distance)
120
Three Principles of Object Perception
• Continuity • Cohesion • Contact
121
Core knowledge: What develops? Development is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
domain specific
122
Core Knowledge • Object knowledge is
-innate -emerges early -is domain specific -encompasses fundamental, reliable constraints on entities in the world -constitutes the core of mature knowledge -gets learning mechanisms off the ground
123
Why Infants Fail Object to Search for Hidden Objects
Ancillary deficit • Infants lack the ability to organize and coordinate means-end sequences A not B: • Working memory • Inhibition • These abilities rely on development of frontal lobe Also, Different, dissociable, streams for visual processing (Dorsal v Ventral)--these streams develop at different rates • Looking-time tasks = ventral • Reaching tasks = dorsal
124
Play is often viewed as essential for development but there are ________ across cultures
different views “highlevel dramatic play produces documented cognitive, social, and emotional benefits”
125
• Play consists of
- Flexibility • Positive affect • Nonliterality • Intrinsic motivation
126
Vygotsky (1978): Pretend play is ______ for development
crucial --says it causes development • A mechanism by which children learn to separate object from referent
127
Theories of pretend play: •Equifinality
Pretend play helps some development, but other activities can work was well or better
128
Theories of Pretend Play: • Piaget
pretend play is an index of development • Epiphenomenon: pretend play is the result of other cognitive developments
129
• Simulation theory:
learn about others’ mental states by analogy to the self • Pretend play is practice in another’s shoes
130
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ that pretend play improves theory of mind performance
Inconsistent evidence Better ToM associated with higher quality pretend play Consistent with epiphenomenal explanation
131
Pretend play and intelligence • Vygotsky: pretend play _______ intelligence
increases intelligence • Training study: • 6-year-olds assigned to keyboard, voice, drama or no training (control) for 36 weeks • Drama training increased IQ compared to no training • Drama was less effective than other skills training at increasing IQ (Schellenberg, 2004) • Consistent with epiphenomenal explanation
132
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_but not pretend play is correlated with more creative problem solving
• Constructive play
133
Epiphenomenon:
pretend play is the result of other cognitive developments
134
Pretend play ________ 4-year-olds’ reasoning on logical syllogisms
improves
135
Children with ASD performed _____ on counterfactual reasoning but \_\_\_\_\_\_\_when imagination was prompted
well worse
136
Language and Pretend Play
Hypothesis: • In pretend play, children use one object to stand for another • Language is also symbolic • Should rely on shared mechanisms, at least! More pretend play at 2-5-years associated with better language in Kindergarten
137
Is it pretend play or embodied cognition
Children who reenact a story with their whole body show better recall than those who do so with a puppet
138
Pretend play and language narrative is consistent with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
epiphenomenal
139
Continuous development refers to ____ changes discontinuous development reders to _____ changes
quantitative (changes in amount) -info processing and Vygotsky qualitative (changes in kind and structure) --Piaget and Kohlberg
140
Ethological approach (biological based theory)
Newborn goslings innately follow the first moving thing after brith --imprinting -argued attachment is based on biologically determined factors
141
Attachment Theory (Bioligcal based theory)
Based on ethological theory (which is also a biological based theory) -stresses the importance of early relationship between child and caregiver • All children thought to form attachments to caregiver regardless of quality of care received
142
NEURODEVELOPMENTAL APPROACHES
Highlight relation of brain development to behavior and cognition • Early experiences play a crucial role in how the brain wires itself, and they influences later behavior
143
Behavioral theories
Ethological Approach Attachment Theory Neurodevelopmental appraoches
144
Psychoanalytic Theories
Freud's Psychosexual Theory Erikson's Rsychosocial Theory
145
Learning vicariously means that you:
learn from observing or hearing about another’s experiences.
146
Freud's psychosexual structures of the mind
Id: -largest portion of mind -source of biological needs/desires -unconscious, present at birth Ego: -conscious, rational part of personality -emerges early in infancy -redirects id impulses in appropriate ways Superego: -The conscious -develops from ages 3-6 through interactions with caregivers
147
Erikson's Psychosocial Stages
Each stage is characterized by a crisis that is either successfully or unsuccessfully resolved
148
Environment-Based Theories
Classical Conditioning Theory Operant Conditioning Theory Social Learning Theory
149
Social Learning Theory
our behavior is shaped through abservational learning
150
Cognition Based Theories
Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development Information Processing Theory
151
Piget's Cognitive-Development Theory
-Kids actively construct knowledge as they manipulate and explore the world -thinking is characerized by adaptation and organization -kids' thinking develops through stages -Progress through stages is invariant
152
Information processing Theory
Brain as computer -brain is a symbol manipulation system through which info flows
153
Vygotsky;s Sociocultural theory
Studied the indirect effects of culture on behavior • Social Interaction: Learning is constructed through active interaction with other members of society and shaped by cultural values and expectations • Social Scaffolding: More skilled person adjusting guidance to fit child’s current level of performance • Interaction with culture tools: Learning is constructed through active interaction with the tools that transmit cultural information (language, books, computers etc.) • Internalization: A three stage process of taking behavior regulation and learning that starts externally and becomes internal and private
154
Bronfenbrenner's ecological system theory
• Microsystem: activities and interaction patterns in a child’s immediate surroundings • Mesosystem: linkages across different settings that include the child (parents/teachers) • Exosystem: social settings that do not contain the child but that affect experiences in the child’s immediate settings • Macrosystem: larger societal values, historical changes, social policies, laws, resources • Chronosystem: time, cuts across all levels
155
Thorndike’s Law of Effect:
Any behavior leading to a “satisfying state of affairs” likely to be repeated • Any behavior leading to an “annoying state of affairs” less likely to reoccur
156
5 Mechanisms of Development
Exploration: Children learn from active exploration of their environment • Schemes: Actions or mental representations that organize knowledge • Assimilation: Children use existing schemes to include new information • Accommodation: Adjusting schemes to fit new information and experiences • Equilibration: A drive to balance assimilation and accommodation to achieve a stable understanding
157
Dynamic Systems Theories
• Theories that use models from mathematics and physics to understand complex systems of development • Focus on how layers of systems interact with one another and change over time. 1. complexity 2. wholness and organization 3. equifinality (although the synamics of each individual system may be different, they also have some core similarities)
158
Development of Self-Recognition
1. Social Responding (5-8 months): Babies are engaged by the mirror, will smile and coo. 2. Contingency Detection (9-12 months): They notice that when they move their arm, the image does too. They begin to understand the temporal (time) relation between the self and the image. They will even "test" the image by waving and bouncing. 3. Mirror Correspondence (12-15 months): Babies can use the mirror correctly to locate objects in space around them. For example if they see a toy in the mirror, they will turn correctly to get it. However, at this age there is still no clear evidence that they know it's "them" in the mirror. 4. Mirror Self-Recognition (15-18 months): Pass the rouge test. 5. Verbal Labeling (18-24 months): At this age they will see the mirror image and say "me" or their name.
159
Active Intermodal Mapping
160
Theory Theory
¤ Theory of mind = an intuitive theory ¨
¨ Based on our experiences and what we learn from other people, we form an integrated body of knowledge concerning law-like relations between
¤ external circumstances
¤ internal states
¤ overt behaviour
Simulation Theory
¤ Theory of mind = “Putting ourselves in someone else’s shoes”
161
~80% of high functioning children with ASD failed the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, while almost all typically developing preschoolers and children with _________ passed
Sally-Anne false belief task
Down syndrome
162
Theories: Empathizing-Synthesizing Theory & The Extreme Male Brain
Men are better ‘systemizers’ — more interested in patterns and interested in natural, mathematical or mechanical systems
Women are better “empathizers” — more tuned into the emotional states of others nRelated to exposure to testosterone in utero?
Smaller corpus callosum in ASD may result in overlateralization of brain function
One ability (systematizing) may become dominant at the expense of another (empathizing)
163
High levels of testosterone prenatally associated with \_\_\_\_\_\_systematizing abilities (e.g., mental rotation) in **females** but not in males
poorer
164
Individuals with ASD show: Larger \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_and a different pattern of amygdala activity when compared with controls
amygdala
165
n Excess of neurons in this region may play a role in ASD
prefrontal cortex
166
Piaget's theory of moral development
Stage 1: Morality of Constraint (unKl ~7-years)
* Rules are absolute
* Focus on consequences, not intentions
Transi/onal Period (ages ~7- to 10-years)
* Begin to take another’s perspective
* Social interacKons with peers
Stage 2: Autonomous Morality (ages ~11-years and older)
* Rules can be changed
* Consider moKvaKon & intentions
167
Kohlberg's Thoery of Moral development
* Piaget’s Influence
* Moral development proceeds through discontinuous stages
* Mechanism of Change: Thinking about moral problems
* Looked at patterns of thought
* Not the response itself but why you chose that response
* Not everyone achieves the highest level
**Preconventional level**
* Individual perspective
* Stage 1: Punishment & obedience orientation
* Stage 2: Instrumental & exchange orientation (not just one right view that is handed down by the authorities; different individuals have different viewpoints.)
**Conventonal level**
* Member of society perspective
* Stage 3: Good interpersonal relationships orientation
* Stage 4: “Law & Order” orientation
**Postconventional or principled level**
* Self-chosen principles
* Stage 5: Individual rights orientation (judgements bades on principles, not only to maintain society)
* Stage 6: Universal ethical principles
168
Higher levels of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_associated with stronger empathy (more moral emotion)
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ associated with addiction, depression, eating disorders, violence, and aggression
guilt
Shame
169
Medial prefrontal cortex:
integrating emotion and decision-making. Also involved in ToM and social functions relevant to moral judgment
170
Posterior Cingulate Cortex
Amygdala
Involved in processing emotion
used to proess emotion, particularly in the visual domain
171
Reduced _____ activation in psychopths relative to controls, and high correlation between psychopathy scores and reduced ______ correclation
PPC
PPC
172
Superior temporal sulcus
perception and representation of socially significant information. Strongly linked to TOM
173
Memories are considered declarative, provided they pass two filters:
**Amnesia Filter:**
* If an amnesiac can do the task, then it’s implicit
* If not, then it’s declarative
**Parameter Filter**:
• If the memory is affected by factors known to influence declarative tasks in adults, then it’s also declarative, e.g.: Changes in study time, Retention interval, Contextual changes
174
Ancillary Deficit
Why infants fail to search for hidden objects
infants lack the ability to organize and coordingate means-end sequences
* Ventral and dorsal streams develop at different rates
* looking-time tasks: ventral (develops first)
* reaching tasks: dorsal
A not B:
* working memory
* inhibition
* these abilities rely on the development of the **frontal lobe**
175
Theories of Pretend Play
* Vygotsky:
* pretend play is crucial for development. It *cases* development
* increases intelligence (epiphenomenal)
* Equifinality
* pretend play helps some development, but other activities can wor as well or better
* Piaget:
* pretend play is an indec of development
* Epiphenomenon: preten play is the result of other cognitive developments
* generally more support for this explanation
* includes adult involvement and training
* Preschoolers who play and learn with adults have more expressive vocabulary improvement than children who just learned with adults
176
Pretend Play and Social Cognition TOM:
\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ evidence that pretend play improves TOM performance.
Consistent with ________ explanation
Inconsistent
epiphenomenal
