COGS 101B Final Flashcards
1
Q
Types of knowledge/LTM
A
Semantic Memory Episodic Memory Procedural and declarative memory Implicit and explicit memory
2
Q
Semantic memory
A
memory for categorical, factual information
3
Q
Three Primary Characteristics of semantic memory:
A
- organized by CONTENT. Similar concepts are more likely to cue one another through association [lexical decision task] 2. it allows us to make INFERENCES. There appears to be a logical, hierarchical order to the categories. 3. Information is not tied to a single instance. Semantic info GENERALIZES beyond a single episode
4
Q
Semantic memory is organized by ________
A
content
5
Q
Semantic memory allows us to make _________
A
inferences
6
Q
Semantic information ______ tied to a single instance. It ______ beyond a single episode
A
is not generalizes
7
Q
One way of testing semantic information is using _______
A
Lexical decision task
8
Q
Lexical decision task (Meyer & Schvaneveldt, 1971)
It is used to test ________
A
A string of letters is presented (e.g. PRINTER or PROGER) and you judge if it is a word or a non-word
The letter string is PRECEDED by a related or unrelated word
Related primes (e.g. nurse–> DOCTOR) were FASTER than unrelated primes (e.g. butter–> DOCTOR)
This is one way of testing semantic info
9
Q
What does the speed of retrieval (for related and unrelated primes) say about the internal structure of memory?
A
Suggests a possible structure to LTM
10
Q
Collins & Quillian (1969) proposed a _______ model of LTM. This model contains nodes and ____
A
Hierarchical model nodes and links
11
Q
Hierarchical model of LTM contains these two elements
A
nodes and links
12
Q
Nodes (in the hierarchical model)
A
concepts or ideas (e.g. bird, animal)
13
Q
Links (in the hierarchical model)
A
are labeled (“is-a” or “has-part”) and directed. subordinate categories point to superordinate categories
14
Q
_____ help verify inferences in the hierarchical network
A
Activation Tags
15
Q
Three problems with the hierarchical model
A
- typicality effect 2. violations of the hierarchical order 3. How do you respond with “false”?
16
Q
typicality effect
A
A problem of the hierarchical model people verify typical instances of a category faster than atypical examples
17
Q
How can we fix the problem of the typicality effect?
A
Some links need to be stronger than others
18
Q
Violations of the hierarchical order
A
A problem of the hierarchical model some activation seem to go around the hierarchical order We need to add a link, but this violates the hierarchy
“is a canary a bird?” is faster than “is a canary an animal?”
“is a penguin a bird?” is slower than “is a penguin an animal?”
19
Q
How do you respond with “false” (in the hierarchical model)
A
a problem of the hierarchical model speed to respond “false” should only depend on “is-a” and “has-part” links. However, people also seem to consider similarities. is a bat a bird? gets a slower false response is a bat a plant? gets a faster false response how related the nodes are determine how fast we can make the distinction
20
Q
Relatedness effect
A
If two nodes are more related to each other, it takes longer to compare them is a bat a bird? they are similar so we compare them where as is a at a plant? they are not similar at all so theres nothing to consider.
–fan effect
21
Q
Episodic Memory
A
Detailed information for specific autobiographical events (things that happened to you)
22
Q
Episodic memories are _______ organized
A
temporally “mental time travel”
23
Q
In episodic memory there is an association between the memory and ______
A
its source
24
Q
Amnesia
A
a loss of memory function
25
Amnesia is characterized by these four symptoms:
CAR crash = amsesia 1. Confabulation 2. Antereograde 3. Retrograde 4. other intellectual functions remain in tact
26
Anterograde Amnesia
New info cant be learned episodic + semantic HM was an example
27
Retrograde Amnesia
Old episodic memories cannot be retrieved and are patchy "TV amnesia"
28
Confabulation (in relation to amnesia) occurs \_\_\_\_\_
around time of injury
29
# Both episodic and semantic memory are effected
Evidence from amnesia, as shown in Korsakoff's Syndrome, shows that ______ memory and _____ memory work together.
Amnesia in Korsakoff's syndrome shows that episodic and semantic memory work together
episodic memory builds semantic networks
In Korsakoff's declarative mem declines (which encompasses episodic and semantic)
30
Korsakoff's syndrome
marked by severe anterograde amnesia usually retrograde amnesia as well, but it is temporally graded. Patients have greater deficits for more recent events and faces -older memories are preserved better due to the effects of alcohol on encoding and storing those memories -both episodic and semantic info are affected
31
Korsakoff's syndrome is marked by _______ amnesia and usually ________ amnesia as well, but it is _______ graded.
Anterograde Retrograde temporally
32
Based on some neuropsychological evidence in _________ amnesia patients, there may be a double dissociation for ________ and ______ memory.
retrograde episodic and semantic memory
33
how is semantic memory strengthened?
by repetition
34
Episodic memory may build up and ______ over time in early childhood to give you a base for \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
generalize semantic memory
35
Once you have some semantic memory established, ________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ will be stronger when they are more novel or unusual
episodic memory
36
Declarative Memory
knowing that something is true knowing what you had for dinner last night (episodic) knowing whether or not it was nutritious (semantic)
37
Procedural memory
Knowing how to do something hard to verbalize, easy to do
38
What kind of amnesia did HM have?
Anterograde amnesia for declarative knowledge (both episodic and semantic)
39
HM and mirror tracing tests
as with normal controls, HM imporved over time, however he had no memory of having done the task before
40
HM and the mirror tracing task demonstrates a difference in _____ and _____ memory
declarative and procedural memory
41
Explicit memory
conscious awareness of an event or meaning
42
implicit memory
change in performace without conscious awareness of the cause (think latent learning) --may be a skill, not always --classical conditioning --priming may activate a word meaning without awareness
43
How can you test implicit vs explicit memory?
repetition priming test
44
Repetition priming
Presented a list of words twice and then tested subjects for _recall_ **(explicit)** or _word completion_ **(implicit)**.
* At test, asked to recall a word that started “mar----” or fill-in “mar\_\_\_” with the first letters that come to mind.
* Subjects were _amnesic patients_ and two groups of control patients.
* Amnesic patients did worse on the recall test, but equally well on the implicit memory task
shows that _implicit and explicit memory are separate _
45
propaganda effect
People are more likely to rate statements as being true if they have read them before statements are more likely to be believed even if they were stipulated as false on the first representation
46
the propaganda effect targets ______ memory
implicit because people will rate the statement as more likely true even if they don't remember seeing it or hearing it before
47
We need models of memory to \_\_\_\_\_\_
make testable predictions
48
Adaptive control of thought (ACT) theory
information is **discrete** and **modular** based on **hierarchical** model of memory built as computational/symbolic model (including software), but more recently includes data from cognitive neuroscience The representation of declarative memory includes episodic and semantic elements
49
Parallel distributed processing (PDP) model
information is distributed and has more plasticity
50
Each model (ACT and PDP) has its own form of _______ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ and ________ of those representations
own form of mental representations and processing
ACT- spreading activation
PDP- changing strengths between excitatory/inhibitory links between units
51
the basic representational unit of the ACT model is
proposition [originally chunks] has two elements: nodes and links
52
How does processing occur in the ACT model
through spreading activation
53
Propositions encode \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
declarative facts
54
The _____ model requires a type-token distinction
ACT
55
A type-token distinction is between ______ memory and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_memory
semantic and episodic memory
56
Propositions must have two elements:
Nodes and links links: semantic association between nodes (agent, relation, or object)
57
Both semantic and episodic memories are part of the ACT model. This requires \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
type-token distinction
type= semantic
token= specific instance (episodic)
58
Type (in ACT model) a type is \_\_\_\_\_\_memory
a general concept (node) or class of objects semantic
59
a token is a _____________ memory
specific instance of a type episodic
60
Processing in the ACT model is done through
spreading activation
61
In the ACT model, nodes with the most activation are made available in \_\_\_\_\_\_
working memory
62
In the ACT model, activation spreads along the links, with ____ passing more activation
stronger links
63
To test the ACT model, you can look at
the speed at which propositions are verified priming words spread activation to related nodes and decreased reaction times faster RTs to things you have seen before
64
What are the propositions in this statement: Sally thinks her neighbor, Bob, is left handed (Bob is actually right handed)
1. bob is left handed 2. sally thinks bob is left handed 3. bob is sally's neighbor each of these statements can be falsified
65
How many nodes does the following statement contain? Sally thinks her neighbor, Bob, is left handed.
Five sally thinks neighbor bob left-handed
66
The ACT model assumes that more activation of associated nodes will lead to _______ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
stronger links
67
The amount of activation leaving a node is _______ by all the links exiting that node
divided
68
More links should lead to a _______ of activation, leading to _______ reaction times
dispersion of activation slower reaction times
69
Fan effect
it takes longer to recognize sentences that include concepts included in many other sentences. (the more distractors you learn, the slower you are to retrieve the right information)
70
In the ACT model, memories are stored at \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
propositions
71
In the ACT model, when a concept is activated in working memory, _____________ is sent to associated concepts via the links. The more activation over time, the stronger the link becomes.
spreading activation
72
In the ACT model, _______ in a current situation is determined by historical activation patterns
relevance
73
In the ACT model, _______________ is reduced because not all details will be activated equally and _______ is limited
computational complexity is reduced working memory is limited
74
Proposition
A statement that can be falsified
75
In the ACT model, retrieved information may be incomplete and open to _________ based on associations
confabulation
76
Parallel distributed processing (PDP)
Neurologically inspired and presumes that meaning is distributed over layers of many units
--adding a concept in ACT adds a local node; adding a concept in PDP changes a network of existing units
--processing is accomplished by changing the strengths of excitatory and inhibitory (valence) links between units)
77
PDP is a form of representation that is _________ inspired and presumes that meaning is ________ over layers of many \_\_\_\_\_\_
neurologically inspired distributed layers of many units
78
Processing in the PDP model is accomplished by ____________ of excitatory and inhibitory _____ between \_\_\_\_\_\_
changing the stregths
links
between units
----networks of neurons (concepts) that fire together wire together ---\>the broader tern is the connectionist model
79
Hidden units in the PDP model add \_\_\_\_\_
computational flexibility
80
In PDP models, __________ information builds the _______ network
episodic information builds the semantic network
81
In the PDP model, as each event/episode provides inputs to the network, it changes _________________ between units
it changes the weights of connections between units
82
In the PDP model, __________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ __ \_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_strengthens the connections, forming a conceptual network (semantic)
multiple encodings of the same events
(episodic events strengthen the semantic networks)
83
In the PDP model, encoding is ________ to damage (compared to the localist ACT model)
very resilient
84
In the PDP model, the same network of units can represent \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
**_different semantic content_**
--weights for each link change in response to input and feedback
--you might see similarities in activation for categories
85
Should PDP models also have fan effects?
yes; a PDP model trained with many different instance may have weak connections between units. This would lead to slow (and incorrect) responses --with increase inputs (expertise), the weights between links should change and the responses should get faster
86
What are the problems with the PDP model? How can you fix the problem?
**overwriting;** if you change the weights between units, you are essentially _erasing_ the original memory. You can fix this by **adding more _UNITS_**
87
What are the advantages of the PDP model? (may be same as the advantages to ACT model)
PDP offers many of the same advantages as ACT, but uses a more flexible (Plastic) and resilient architecture.
1. **memories are stored over many units**, with layers of a network. The loss of some units does not seem fatal to maintaining the concept ---biologically inspired system, with the operation analogous to neurons withing layers of cortex
2. Processing is accomplished by activation of links (connections) between units ---links can be trained over many instances/inputs. the resulting semantic concept is built from episodic info ---WEIGHTED links can be excitatory or inhibitory ---**computational complexity is reduced because contextual cuse activate the relevant units**
88
Memories of similar/relvant instances in the past reduce the ______________ of the present situation
cognitive complexity
89
Memory is a _________ process, using _____ input and top-down knowledge
constructive process uses current input and top-down knowledge
90
A study by Anderson et al (1977) used the same text, but asked different groups of students what it was about. --physical edu majors vs. music majors What type of priming is taking place when a descriptive title is added?
64% of physical education majors interpreted the passage as having to do with wrestling.
* Only 28% of music majors thought it was associated with wrestling.
* Most interpreted it as a prisoner planning escape In a similar study by Bransford and Johnson (1972) using passages of complex text describing a scene, r_ecall for events in the story doubled_ (32% vs 16%) when a **descriptive title** was provided. clearly some **SEMANTIC PRIMING** is occurring
91
Schema
general knowledge structure used for understanding complex situations --they include the RELATIONSHIP between facts --they provide relevant top-down knowledge
92
A schema is general for a ______ of situation, and helps give __________ to a _______ event
type of situation gives organizational structure to a specific event
93
Based on an accumulation of events, you build schemas for different situations. This build ________ for specific elements during some episode.
expectations
94
Each schema has ______ that are placeholders for expected (typical) items. Each slot can be filled with ______ from the current situation. If no value for a slot is provided, the schema may have a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
slots filled with appropriate values default assumption
95
The default values in schemas can lead to characteristic mistakes. Brewer and Treyens (1981) examined schemas for places.
• Participants waited in a graduate student office for 35 seconds. • They were then taken out and asked to recall the items in the office Subjects had good recall for items that fit a graduate office schema (i.e. desk, chair). However, 30% of subjects reported seeing books, even though none were present. Books are a default expectation, so that are recalled even though they were not present in that instance
96
People in the same _____ tend to share the same slots in schemas, but your _______ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ may vary based on personal experience and preferences.
same culture
individual defaults
97
Script
specific type of schema they are more structured and have a specific order of events often embedded in a schema there are causal links between events in the script. Changing an event (outcome) changes the script.
98
There are _________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_ between events in a script. Changing an event (outcome) changes the script.
causal links
99
Bower and colleagues (1972) did a number of experiments regarding how people produce and use scripts.
Participants were asked to _free-associate_ and write a list of actions that they think people do in various situations (e.g. go to a lecture, get up in the morning, go to a restaurant, etc.).
* They found great **uniformity for “basic actions”** described in scripts (e.g. out of 730 total actions for ‘restaurant’ only four were completely unique and were given by a single person).
* This suggests that **_people encode and later recall similar elements from a type of event._**
100
Bower and colleagues (1972) also asked (different) participants to recall facts about stories.
[order/organization of a story]
* People were presented with passages that contained six ordered events/actions. They each had a title (e.g. “The Doctor). − Stories could be in _typical order or scrambled_.
* They were later (after a 20 minute delay) provided with just the title and asked to recall each line from the story.
* Stories presented in the _correct order_ were recalled with 50% accuracy. Stories in scrambled order can 18% accuracy.
* **Recall was better when the items followed the typical script, suggesting an _organization_ role in understanding and memory.**
* Additionally, people _added 1 fact_ (on average) that was plausible given the context.
101
Although schemas seem to be made of __________ facts, much of the activity appears more ________ and hard to state. The rules and dependencies seem like post hoc confabulation
declarative facts appears more proedural
102
Schemas/Scripts: How are the dependencies established, particularly when slots can be filled with new items?
PDP may be a way of addressing this, as experience forms the dependency
103
Schemas and scripts should break down when \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
defaults are violated
104
Just as we use schemas to understand (encode) events, we also use them later during \_\_\_\_
recall
105
Source Monitoring
process of determining the origin of some memory or belief
106
Sometimes we use ______ (a schema for a person) to reconstruct a memory
stereotypes This can be very useful--a with all schemas you dont need to recall every detail, but can fill in with defaults, but this leads to many errors.
107
Marsh, Cook, & Hicks (2006) examined the role of gender stereotypes on source attributions.
Subjects read statements (e.g. “I like baseball.”), that were attributed to one of two people: Chris or Pat. • Sentences were masculine, feminine, or neutral. • Subjects were given a puzzle (delay) and later told the gender of the people (Chris is a heterosexual male, Pat is a heterosexual female). • They then re-read the statements, and asked the source (who had said them). • **People were more accurate when the statements matched the stereotypes (schemas).**
108
Source monitoring error
when we attribute a remembered item to the wrong source source monitoring: determining the origin of some memory or belief
109
Reconstructive memory
the use of what was likely, given the schemas if you use a cue to probe part of a memory, you may rely on default values when you cant remember precise detail
110
The schema you use to recall an event may act as a set of cues (i.e. the slots to be filled) for your memory. Anderson & Pichert (1978) asked participants to read a story from the perspective of a burglar or home buyer
The story contained many descriptions of rooms and the valuables located in them. • When asked to recall details from the story, 64% of perspective –relevant details (e.g. burglar) were remembered, compared to 46% from the other perspective (home buyer). • However, if asked to then switch perspectives (e.g. from burglar to home buyer), participants remembered 10% more detail. • _Your **working memory** for the story was **reconstructed** based on the **schema** activated._
* This means that the schema you already have in your head, you are able to adapt that and change perspective to pull up new info from LTM to reconstruct WM
111
your __________ memory can be ______ based on the schema activated
working memory can be reconstructed
112
Because memory is \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, eyewitness accounts can be systematically distorted.
reconstructive
113
Loftus, Burns & Miller (1978) examined how misinformation may alter eyewitness memory.
• Subjects were shown slides of a car accident. Half saw slide A (with stop sign). • Later asked, “Did another car pass the red car while it was stopped at the (yield sign/intersection)?” • Then given a recognition test: “Did you see slide A or slide B originally?” • If given neutral information (intersection), they chose A 85% of the time. • If given misleading information (yield sign), they chose A 38% of the time. • This is called the misinformation effect.
114
Misinformation effect
If given misleading info, you believe it
115
Three main explanations suggested for the misinformation effect.
**Overwriting:** the new information erases and replaces the original memory
**Source confusion**: the new information _competes_ with the original memory during retrieval. Both are present in memory, but it is difficult to chose.
**Misinformation acceptance**: you dont notice the difference between the two episodic memories or recall the sign at all; you just assume the misleading information is correct
116
Evidence for the misinformation acceptance hypothesis
McCloskey & Zaragoza (1985) tested the misinformation acceptance hypothesis with a modification of the Loftus et al. (1978) experiment. hammer vs screw driver (hammer primed with "tool" and screw driver was the misleading info) modification: asked hammer or wrench --if misleading info overwrote original memory (hammer), then both responses would be equally likely but hammer was the more frequent response, indicating that it hadnt been erased. (so it cant be overwriting)
117
Lindsay (1990) tested the effect of awareness on misleading information. If you can discount the misleading information, does it still have an effect? (***Evidence for _source confusion_ hypothesis***)
• Subjects watched slides of a man stealing a computer. • They then read a narrative with misleading information. • 48 hours later, they are given recall questions, but were first warned to disregard the narrative because it was wrong. • Under the misinformation acceptance hypothesis, participants should not report anything from the narrative. However, subjects still reported items form the narrative. This is consistent with the source confusion hypothesis.
118
We've seen how eyewitness testimony can be affected by **_misinformation_**. Well's and Bradfield (1998) also showed how it can be affected by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
Feedback
119
Wells & Bradfield (1998) showed how eyewitness testimony can be affected by feedback.
This is known as the ________________ effect
Subjects watched a video of an actual crime.
* They pick out a suspect from a set of photos, though the actual criminal is not present.
* Feedback given is either confirming or disconfirming.
* Subjects had higher confidence in their choice if given confirming feedback.
* This is the post-identification feedback effect.
120
Post-identification feedback effect
Subjects had higher confidence in their choice if given confirming feedback
121
Stanny & Johnson (2000) looked at the role of an __________ stimulus (gunshot) on memory
Emotional stimulus
Participants watched a video of simulated crime.
* A gun was always present. In half of the cases the gun was fired (“shoot”), in the other half it was not (“no shoot”).
* Memory for _detail was significantly worse_ if the gun was fired.
* It is thought that the s_trong exogenous cue causes an emotional reaction that **interferes with attention and encoding.**_
* Note: the participants were full-time police officers.
122
An eyewitness can sometimes musidentify a suspect based on \_\_\_\_\_. This is a _____________ error in which a recent or familiar person is recalled instead of the actual suspect.
familiarity
this is a source monitoring error
Participants watched a video with a female or male teacher. They then saw a video where the female teacher is robbed. They are asked to identify the robber.
* If the robber was not in the photos, the male teacher was identified 60% of the time. If the robber was present, the male teacher was identified 18% of the time
* This familiarity effect is a source monitoring error
123
Familiarity Effect
A source monitoring error in which a recent of familiar person is recalled in place of the actual suspect
124
The familiarity effect is a ________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
source monitoring error
125
Name 4 reasons eyewitness testimony is unreliable
1. it is affected by MISINFORMATION
2. confidence can be manipulated by FEEDBACK
3. EMOTIONAL events may decrease ATTENTION AND ENCODINGof detail
4. SOURCE MONITORING ERRORD allow FAMILIAR information to interfere with events
126
Flashbulb memory
Coined by Brown and Kulik in 1977 to describe your memory for where you were and what you were doing during a highly emotional event
They are highly vivid, highly emotional, and tend to be very detailed memories. They are remembered with great CONFIDENCE.
127
Brown and Kulik (1977) asked 80 people where they were and what they were doing when they heard about the Kennedy assassination in 1963. (asked them 13 years after the event)
All but one person had memory of hearing about the assasination.
* This shows that people still have a memory of the event even though they were asked to recall it 13 years later.
* highly emotional event = good general memory
Brown & Kulik argued that a distinct biological mechanism exists for highly surprising and consequential events.
* This would give an evolutionary advantage as these events would be remembered and avoided by those who survive.
* The more detail you accurately remember, the better your chances
128
Neisser & Harsch (1992) examined the accuracy of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_memories following the Challenger disaster in 1986.
describe the experiment
flashbulb
The morning after, they gave college undergraduates a questionnaire asking how they had heard about the accident. • Asked for explicit detail: who told you, where were you, doing what, etc.
* 2.5 years later, they asked the same people what had happened.
* This is a procedure known as repeated recall.
* The later reports were compared with the original baseline details
* Only 25% remembered the original questionnaire after 2.5 years.
* Only 3 out of 44 people’s 2nd account matched their original questionnaire responses.
* Only 50% got one or two important details (e.g. where they heard about it), correct.
* Interestingly, the 13 people with the highest confidence were only average in the accuracy.
* Perhaps what is “special” about flashbulb memories is the degree of confidence they give a person for their memories?
129
Repeated recall
recall a memory sometime after an event (2.5 years in the case of the challenger exp)
130
Talarico & Rubin (2003) compared a ______ memory with an ______ memory from the same time period
flashbulb vs ordinary mem
Subjects were asked to recall details of their experience immediately following the attacks on 9/11/01.
* They were also asked to recall an ordinary event that happened a few days before.
* In both cases, they rated their belief in their accuracy.
* Accuracy declined for both memories over time, but confidence remained high for the flashbulb event.
131
Recovered Memories
memories an adult uncovers of a traumatic childhood event
Some remembered events are of a criminal nature and should be prosecuted.
* In many cases, the only evidence is the memory of the event. The accused will often offer a different account of events.
* Some of these memories may be accurate, while others may be false memories – memories for events that never happened.
132
False memories
Memories for events that never happened
133
Some recovered memories may be accurate, while others may be \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
false memories
134
Why weren't recovered memories remembered earlier?
* the person represses the information because it is too difficult for a child to process. [Lack the schemas to make sense.]
* Sometimes the child is actively told that they events never happened, so they forget for a time. [Misinformation effect.]
Once the memories are recalled/recovered, the details seem extremely vivid. However they are hard to verify.
135
Is it even possible to have a firm belief in something that could be objectively false? Deese (1959) and Roediger & McDermott (1995) tested this with lists of words.
A sequence of words was presented to participants (e.g. nurse, syringe, shot, vaccine). • Later, they see a list of words containing old (syringe), new related (needle), and new unrelated (table) words. They judge which were seen before
136
Wade et al. (2002) examined if we can have false memories for detailed childhood experiences with a post-event misinformation paradigm.
Doctored photos were presented to adults, showing them doing something as a child that never happened.
* Participants were asked to recall details about the event.
* With *_repeated presentations_*, about half of the participants would recall _**additional details** (false memories) not seen in the (fake) photos._
* This is relevant to the recovered memory debate because some therapists have been accused (and convicted) of implanting memories of abuse.
137
It has been shown that people will sometimes confess to actions they haven’t committed. This can be due to ___________ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (feedback).
misinformation and suggestion
138
False Confessions:
Nash and Wade (2009) took videos of people playing a computer game. When they received a green check, they took money from the “bank.” If they received a red cross, they had to return money.
After playing the game, they were shown a doctored video which made it look like they cheated. • While some subjects were surprised by the evidence, they all admitted to cheating. • A different group was told the video existed, but it wasn’t shown. 73% admitted to cheating.
139
Recovered memories are problematic because they ofen lack ___________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
independent verification
140
Why would anyone admit to a horrific crime they hadn’t committed?
(ST RE SP M/F)
High emotional STRESS of interrogation and lack of sleep makes some people say anything to make it stop.
* SOCIAL PRESSURE, including feedback and misinformation, can make people doubt what they believe.
* Just as some people believe traumatic recovered memories are repressed, you might think it possible that you REPRESSED the memory of having done something terrible. (You feel confused, and think its possible you repressed the mem, so you admit to it)
141
“Why is my memory for names and dates so bad?”
[leaning tower of] PISA \<3
* A name is an impoverised stimulus. Unless its rare (like Oprah), it won't stand out.
* Common names (Steve) will have a lot of PROACTIVE INTERFERENCE (a lot of people have that name)
* FAILURE OF ATTENTION. We don't encode the info during a brief encournter and there is no opportunity to rehearse it.
* In extreme cases, people with word-finding difficulty may have proper name anomia. This is a type of aphasia in which you can’t produce specific types of information.
* Your memory for names is good when you have an _emotional connection to the source _
142
In extreme cases, people with word-finding difficulty may have _________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
proper name anomia
This is a type of aphasia in which you can’t produce specific types of information
143
Some (5) tips for remembering names:
Pay very close ATTENTION to a person’s name when first introduced.
* ELABORATE the encoding with some specific detail of the person’s appearance or personal background.
* REPEAT/REHEARSE the name immediately.
* Ask them to repeat the name. This will give you an _additional auditory CUE._
* Imagine the name printed on their forehead. VISUAL ASSOCIATIONS help encode the memory. (What is “rabbit” in Spanish?)
144
Can emotion ever help memory?
• We saw earlier that _______ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ learning gives an advantage if the internal state at recall matches the internal state at encoding
* Flashbulb memories are often wrong about \_\_\_\_\_, but the basic structure of the episodic memory seems strongly encoded.
state dependent learning
details
145
Cahill et al (1995) did a series of studies which examined the role of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ during encoding on later recall of detail.
The emotional nature of the events leads to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
[EX: boy's trip to the hospital]
Emotion
Subjects were told a story (with pictures) about a boy going to the hospital.
* The boy’s trip to the hospital was either (1) as part of a disaster drill (neutral control) or (2) following a traumatic accident (emotional stimulus).
* Both stories had the same beginning and ending, but the story diverges in the middle.
* Participants read the stories and viewed the pictures. Two weeks later, they are shown the pictures and asked to supply the narrative.
* **Those who had heard the emotional narrative had superior memory for the middle photos. **
* Details at the begining and end were not remembered as well
* The emotional nature of the events leads to **_deeper encoding_** of the narrative
* The total number of items recalled for each group were about the same
146
Cahill and colleagues suggested that the emotional nature of the events lead to _______ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of the narrative.
(story told about boy who went to the hospital--story diverges to either neutral middle or emotional middle while begining and end of story remain the same.)
deeper encoding
This could be similar to the inaccuracies of flashbulb memories. We tend to forget (make source monitoring errors) when the details are less important.
147
Cahill and colleagues (1995) examined the role of an emotional story (with images) on memory. They argued that memory for a narrative with emotional context was similar to _______ memories in that the most ________ events could be remembered, but less ______ details were less accurate
Flashbulb
emotional
emotional
148
Emotion interacts with ______ memory
episodic memory
autobiographical memories (Episodes) for emotionally-laden events seem enhanced
149
Amnesiacs with no ______ \_\_\_\_\_\_ of recently studied items will show enhanced recognition memory performance for ________ items.
no free recall
emotional items
150
Items with \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_content (e.g. words such as death, kill, joy, tickle) are more likely to be recalled in laboratory memory studies, relative to \_\_\_\_\_\_\_terms (Kensinger & Corkin, 2003).
Interestingly, the effect seems to be larger for ______ words.
emotional
neutral
negative
151
Why might you have better memory for emotional events?
You may be more motivated to **rehearse/retell** emotional events.
you may also ENCODE these items differently
152
The _______ modulates the encoding of emotional memories
amygdala
153
fMRI studies show that ________ events increase activity in the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_. (Especially for ______ stimuli.)
Emotional
amygdala
fearful
154
Patients with ______ damage do not the the **memory boost for emotional** events in a story.
amygdala
155
Blocking stress hormones (epinephrine) decreases __________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of memores. This has important consequences for _______ and related conditions.
emotional encoding
PTSD
156
Hyperthymesia
Natural tendency to link EPISODIC info with strong emotional content.
The ability to recall incredibly detailed accounts of _personal_ events.
Jill Price (patient A.J.) has near-perfect autobiographical memory of events since age 11.
* Her semantic memory is average.
* Given relatively simple temporal cues (e.g. a date), she can recall vivid memories of what they were doing or what she saw.
* It seems like flashbulb memory, but with accuracy.
157
Hyperthymesia seems like flashbulb memory, but with \_\_\_\_\_
accuracy
158
Hyperthymesia seems to be associated with changes in amydgala ______ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
size and connectivity
Patient HK was the second diagnosed case. He is blind and has near perfect memory for events after about age 10.
* Structural MRI show his right amygdala to be 20% larger than controls (Ally et al, 2013).
* When tested on false memory paradigms (like CogLab 33), people with hyperthymesia make the same errors as controls. This suggests that their semantic associations are the same as others’.
159
Structural MRI show that Patient HK's ______ amygdala is 20% larger than controls
right
160
When tested on false memory paradigms, people with __________ make the _SAME ERRORS_ as controls. This suggests that their ______ associations are the same as others'
hyperthymesia
semantic associations
161
Savant Syndrome
A small subset of people affected by Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) demonstrate exceptional abilities in highly selective areas of cognition
Though they may score below average on standardized intelligence tests, they may have remarkable abilities in the areas of mathematics, declarative memorization, or music.
162
Daniel Tammet is a savant with synesthesia. He has a \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ of 11.5 digits, compared to typical 6.5. He memorized pi to 22,514 digits. • A very small subset of neurotypical people have
memory span
163
Can neurologically typical subjects be induced to show savant-like skills?
When participants were given TMS, they became more accurate in the numerosity judgments compared to sham treatment.
* In other experiments (Gallete et al, 2009), TMS over LATL _reduced false memories_ in lists (like CogLab 33).
* It is thought that TMS temporarily deactivates LATL and impairs topdown information. Subjects become **less able to apply schemas** and semantic information. Judgment becomes more _bottom-up and literal_
164
Numerosity
The ability to instantly estimate a large number of items.
165
Snyder et al. (2006) applied transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to the _________________ of participants. Other were presented with sham (fake) TMS
left anterior temporal lobe (LATL)
People were presented with 50 – 150 items on a monitor for 1.5 sec and asked to estimate the number.
• They were tested before and after TMS/sham administration.
When participants were given TMS, they became more accurate in the numerosity judgments compared to sham treatment.
* In other experiments (Gallete et al, 2009), TMS over LATL reduced false memories in lists (like CogLab 33).
* It is thought that TMS temporarily deactivates LATL and impairs topdown information. Subjects become less able to apply schemas and semantic information. Judgment becomes more bottom-up and literal.
166
One of the central tenets of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_is that some aspects of ‘thinking’ can be accomplished though the use of external artifacts.
distributed cognition
• Your smartphone, calendar, computer, note pad, etc. are all external memory aids. You ‘retrieve’ a memory through a manual procedure, rather than mental recall.
167
Many ___________ – techniques that help memory retention – use interactions with the **_physical world_** as memory cues.
mnemonics
168
One of the best strategies for building exceptional memory is through the use of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
How should you organize information?
Chuncking
Chase & Ericsson (1981) trained individuals to chunk lists of numbers.
* A runner was able to chunk numbers into recognizable running times and develop a memory span of 80 items.
* A non-runner was trained in the same method and progressed to 40 items. The experiment stopped, but the rate of improvement matched the runner.
* Mnemonist chunking strategies **organize information in terms of top-down schemas.** This makes encoding and retrieval easier
169
One of the central tenets of __________ is that some aspects of "thinking" can be accomplished through the use of external artifacts.
* ex: smartphone, calendar, computer (cognitive artifacts)
distributed cognition
170
many _______ (techniques that help memory retention) use interactions with the physical world as memory cues
mnemonics
171
One of the oldest mneumonnics is the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
the method of loci
172
Method of loci
* Ordered sets of items are imagined in a familiar place (your house)
* You think of a vivid and EMOTIONAL, visual image at each location. This acts a the cue for the memory,
* During retrieval, you rehearse going through the scene
* all these become cues that are brought up again and again in retrieval
* they are put into a familiar place (a schema)
* you walk through the schema
* walk through a spatial understanding of something that is really familiar
173
What are the elements from learning, memory, and attention used by the **method of loci?**
**alPACA named FOE**
* The method of loci (or any mnumonic) _organizes _the indormation and establishes a **retrieval plan **
* attention is **focused **on the elements & retrieval cues to be remembered
* the visual imagery is a type of **elaboration. **it helps create a *deeper, *richer memory during encoding. Images are placed within your house **schema **
* the memory and the locatino is **paired associate learning **
* the method creates a **consistent mapping **between the item to be remembered and an image/location. THis will assist in making the retrieval _automatic _
* **automaticity **
174
*Autistic savants *are thought to use which of the following methods to recall items from memory?
A. chunking
B. mnemonics
C. emotional cues
D. method of loci
E. none of the above
E. none of the above.
it is not understood how exactly they do this
they probably dont use emotional cues... (autism makes it hard to understand emotional cues)
175
People with **hyperthymesia** are thought to use which of the following methods to recall items from memory?
A. chunking
B. mnemonics
C. emotional cues
D. method of loci
E. none of the above
C. emotional cues
They emotoinally charge every event that directly happens to them
Purely episodic, not semantic
They would remember exactly what happened a year ago--they rem that they read a book, but not what they read in that book
176
\_\_\_\_\_\_ is your awareness of *how likely *you are to remember something and *how strong *the memory will be,
metamemory
* We've seen cases (eyewitness testimony and flashbulb memories) where confidence is higher than accuracy
* in general your metamemory is fairly good
* _this is useful because you use your metamemory to choose what to study, _
* Your awareness of how likely you are to remember something and how strong the mem is
You are good at guessing how well you will remember something
177
Metamemory
Your awareness of how likely you are to remember something and how strong the mem is
You are good at guessing how well you will remember something
* this is useful because you use your metamemory to choose what to study
178
Nelson & colleagues (1994) tested metamemory in people learning Swahili
* Subjects made judgements of words in a list that would be best remembered (best-learned) or worst remembered (worst-learned) on a subsequent test.
* one group could select which words to re-study (they mainly picked worst-learned items); a computer selected for the other 3 groups (worst-learned, best-learned, and most difficult)
* subjects showed the **highest accuracy** when they re-studied the **worst-learned items,** showing that they were _aware of what they didnt remember (**metamemory**)._
179
**Metamemory **can be led astray by ______ and \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
feedback and familiarity
“You’ve got this, you don’t need to study,” say the friends who want you to go out with them... Confidence increases (like eyewitness testimony _feedback_), but accuracy for detail may remain low.
* Massed practice (i.e. cramming) may lead to _familiarity_ with material. You recognize answers, but may not be able to recall them later on the exam.
* Trust, but verify, your metamemory. Make a judgment of remembering after a delay. Ask someone to quiz you so you aren’t simply re-reading things that may look familiar, then re-study the items that are most difficult to recall.
180
Emotional cues seem to enhance memory for _______ information. This appears to be largely mediated by \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
episodic information
the amygdala
181
Individuals with **hyperthymesia **have amazing autobiographical ______ memory, but average _____ memory. Though not understood, it may be partly due to greater activation in the _______ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
182
**Savants **may have increased _________ \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_ (working memory), but specialization seems to be highly restricted. This may be due to some difficulty in forming or using \_\_\_\_\_\_\_
increased memory spans
difficulty in using schemas (top-down info)
- they use more bottom-up info, and therefore interpret things more literally
- neurotypical people experience this when TMS is applied over the left anterior temporal lobe (LATL)
183
Savant-like behavior can be seen in some individuals who have TMS to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_
**_LEFT _**anterior temporal lobe (LATL)
184
More typical memory experts use \_\_\_\_\_\_\_** **(method of loci, chunking) to perform feats of memory
mnemonics
185
your _______ is the ability to be aware of what you are likely to remember. It is fairly accurate, but may be biased by **_feedback and familiarity . _**
metamemory
186
General study tips (SORE TUFS)
1. when studying, only study [reduce task load and exogenous cues]
2. use outlines [organize material and use retrieval plan]
3. distribute your study time (dont cram) [rehearsal = deeper encoding and more cues for retrieval]
4. elaborate [create more cues, use mnemonics]
5. test yourself [context effects, rehearsal]
6. understand of specific examples express abstract principles [see how examples fit into schemas]
7. sleep! [sleep consolidation, sleep is good mroe attention span, consolidation, and retrieval]
