cognitivism (metaethics)

Question 1

what are the realist cognitivist theories?

Answer 1

naturalism
intuitionism

Question 2

what are the anti-realist cognitivist theories?

Answer 2

error theory

Question 3

define naturalism

Answer 3

moral judgements = beliefs intended to be true/false (cognitivism) about properties that exist naturally

Question 4

examples of naturalism

Answer 4

utilitarianism (pain/pleasure are natural properties and we make cognitive beliefs about them)

virtue ethics (ergon/function and eudaimonia are natural properties and we make cognitive beliefs about them)

Question 5

how does Mill prove utilitarianism metaethically?

Answer 5

1. the only proof something is desirable is that people desire it
2. happiness is desired so is desirable
   (any other aim is part of becoming happy so happiness is the ultimate aim)
3. as everyone desires happiness, our sum happiness is the goal of morality
4. so morality = producing the greatest happiness for the greatest number. Happiness is the only good.

Question 6

problems for naturalism

Answer 6

naturalistic fallacy

is-ought gap

verification principle

Question 7

naturalistic fallacy

Answer 7

naturalism is always false because it always tries to define morality which is undefinable, as shown by the open question argument

morality or goodness is like yellow, it can’t be defined for certain, it is an open question

Question 8

is/ought gap

Answer 8

you can’t logically derive ought statements from is statements. we can’t derive moral statements from natural properties

Question 9

verification principle against cognitivism

Answer 9

statements only have meaning if they are:

analytic truth (triangle has 3 sides)

empirically VERIFIABLE (water boils at 100c)

—> all moral judgements fail the VP, so naturalistic statements fail it too

Question 10

defense against is/ought gap

Answer 10

if smith says to jones “i promise to pay you back”, he has an obligation to pay jones back (is statement, there IS an obligation)

if there is an obligation, then smith SHOULD pay back jones. we derived an ought statement from an is statement

Question 11

define non-naturalism

Answer 11

moral judgements = beliefs intended to be true/false about real non-natural (basic, non-physical) properties

Question 12

define intuitionism

Answer 12

morality is a series of basic, self-evident intuitions that come to us

Question 13

2 arguments against non-naturalism

Answer 13

arguments from queerness

verification principle

Question 14

how do arguments from queerness disprove non-naturalism?

Answer 14

moral properties don’t exist, as if they were real they’d have to be very strange or queer

1. epistemically queer: if they exist, how would we ever gain knowledge of them?? moore’s explanation is incomplete
2. metaphysically queer: if they exist they’d have to be metaphysically different to anything else.

Question 15

define error theory

Answer 15

moral judgements = beliefs intended to be true or false that are ALWAYS false because moral judgements don’t actually exist

Question 16

how does Mackie argue for error theory?

Answer 16

1. Moral philosophy always assumes objective moral values, aiming to be true or false
2. They can never be true, because moral properties don’t exist for two reasons:
   — argument from relativity: variations in moral beliefs between cultures and time shows that objective morality doesn’t exist
   — argument from queerness (epistemological, metaphysical)

Question 17

3 arguments against error theory

Answer 17

arguments for non-cognitivism

moral nihilism

moral progress

Question 18

moral nihilism

Answer 18

the idea that no actions are inherently wrong. why should we bother being moral at all?

Question 19

moral progress

Answer 19

1. if moral anti-realism is true there’d be no moral progress
2. but there has been moral progress
3. so moral anti-realism is false

Question 20

response to moral nihilism

Answer 20

non cognitivists: inherent morality doesn’t exit but we still have moral attitudes and feelings

error theory: we should just accept moral nihilism

there may be PRACTICAL reasons to behave according to moral judgements

Question 21

response to moral progress against error theory

Answer 21

there hasn’t been any objective moral progress, just cultural moral change