Cognitive Psychology Flashcards

Question

Explain subtraction logic using an example

Answer 1

- Research question: What regions of the brain are involved in successful memory retrieval? - Task: participants study a list of words and then are visually presented with words individually on the screen and asked if it was studied or not (e.g. old or new)

Answer 2

+ Very good spatial resolution (millimetres) (e.g. WHERE something happens) - Poor temporal resolution (seconds) (e.g. WHEN it happens) - Not a measure of neurons themselves (requires an indirect interference that neurons are firing because that part of the brain is using more oxygen)

Answer 3

- All the methods so far are purely correlational - To know if a particular part of your brain is important for a cognitive process, we need to change the activity of that part of the brain and show that it changes behaviour (e.g. we need causal evidence, not just correlational)

Answer 4

- Short magnetic pulses that briefly affect electrical activity in a localised patch of brain tissue under the coil - Is typically applied either before or during a cognitive task - Can have positive or negative effects on task performance

Answer 5

+ Causal evidence that a particular region is important for a cognitive function (not just correlational, like brain imaging) + Mostly non-invasive (e.g. safe and painless for healthy populations)

Answer 6

- Expensive/invasive (often means that sample sizes are small; generalisable?) - Theories (emphasis in the literature on measuring brain effects rather than testing theories) - Does it help us understand cognition? (what does it mean to understand? Could a neuroscientist understand a microprocessor?)

Answer 7

- The brain doesn't see at all - it received electrical signals about light interacts with the eye, and then it must infer what is out there in the world - Your cognitive abilities have limits - Generally, you perceive what you expect to perceive - Your sensory systems are imperfect and idiosyncratic (distinct, individual, different to everyone else) (your experience of an event will be different to how the person next to you experiences the event) (perception feels "richer" that it is) - A lot happens between a "noisy" sensory input and your subjective perception - Top-down processes have a strong influence on perception (perception isn't veridical/reliable) - Mental/cognitive processes have limits (your brain's resources are finite and need to be distributed)

Answer 8

- Yes! - You aren't as aware of the world as you think you are - Implications for eyewitness testimony, driving safety, UX/UI design, etc.

Answer 9

- Yes! - Implications for schizophrenia and depression - Positive versus maladaptive thoughts - changes your impression of something (e.g. walking into a room thinking everyone likes you versus thinking everybody hates you) - Cells are unable to process something that small, so only focuses on bigger changes

Answer 10

- We make that inference just from photons, which are bouncing off the surface in front of us and coming into our eyes and hitting our retinas - There's nothing physically in front of us that tells that there is indeed a spoon handle behind that coffee cup - We're just getting light from the screen, hitting our eyes, telling us that there's an edge here (e.g. some light here, some darkness here, etc.)

Answer 11

Reception (absorption of physical energy, e.g. photons) -> Transduction (physical energy is converted into an electrochemical pattern in the neurons) -> Coding (one-to-one correspondence between aspects of the physical stimulus and aspects of the resultant nervous system activity)

Answer 12

Rods - vision in dim light and movement Cones - colour vision, sharpness of vision

Answer 13

6 million (most in the fovea)

Answer 14

125 million (in the outer regions of the retina)

Answer 15

Where you're looking, where your eye is pointing

Answer 16

How many cones there are at each of these angular separations from our fovea from where we're looking, so how many cones and how many rods - All of our cones are in the fovea (where your eye is pointing is where most of your cones are) - The rods are primarily distributed in your periphery

Answer 17

Cones - primarily care about processing colour Rods - don't care about colour

Answer 18

Light in the green range

Answer 19

- Young found that all colours of the spectrum can be produced by mixing 3 primary colours - Von Helmholtz proposed that there must be three types of colour receptors in the human eye, responding to different wavelengths of light The three types of colour receptors: - One that really cares about red - One that really cares about blue - One that really cares about green (Because the different amount of input to those red, blue and green could combine to give you all possible colours of light that you can perceive The three types of cones that prefer different wavelengths: - Short (blue) - Medium (yellow-green) - Long (red)

Answer 20

- Sighted people will never perceive blueish-yellow or reddish-green, and also experience negative afterimages - Colour perception assumed to have three opponent processes - Dual-process theory (Hurvich & Jameson) linked these processes to combinations of inputs from the three cone types - So trichromatic theory works at the level of photoreceptors, and opponent-process theory works at the level of neurons

Answer 21

- The tendency for a surface to appear to have the same colour despite a change in the wavelengths contained in the illuminant (the light source) - Evolutionarily very helpful (e.g. the colour of light from the sun changes across the day) - So the colours of things will change across the day (e.g. fruits) and it's important for us to know whether something is safe to eat at multiple times of the day (example) - What sighted people perceive isn't entirely driven by the wavelengths of light that hit the retina: - What the cones know is different from what the person perceives - Perception is a constructive process

Answer 22

Parvocellular (P) pathway -> sensitive to colour and fine detail -> most input comes from cones Magnocellular (M) pathway -> most sensitive to motion -> most input comes from rods

Answer 23

1. Retina -> 2. Optic nerve -> 3. Optic chiasm -> 4. Lateral Geniculate Nucleus (LGN) -> 5. Cortical area V1 Chiasm (makes a shape of an 'x' on the diagram, comes from the Greek letter 'chi' meaning 'x') LGN - part of the thalamus

Answer 24

Signals reaching the left visual cortex come from the left sides of the two retinas Signals reaching the right visual cortex come from the right side of the two retinas

Answer 25

Things that are near to each other in space are processed in cells that are physically near to one another (e.g. if a certain neuron has a receptive field in a certain part of space, the neuron next to it will have a receptive field just slightly shifted in space from it)

Answer 26

A reduction of activity (inhibition) in one neuron that is caused by a neighbouring neuron If one neuron is firing a lot because there's lots of light happening (lots of interesting things happening in its receptive field), it can reduce the probability that the neurons next to it are firing (essentially reducing the probability that the space around it causes neurons to fire) Useful for enhancing contrast at edges of objects

Answer 27

Means that you have a neuron in your brain that it fires when something happens in a certain circle/part of your visual world, and it only fires when something happens there Receptive fields aren't just the properties of visual neurons, you also have them for auditory neurons (e.g. will only fire for sounds of particular pitches)

Answer 28

- Part of the thalamus - a subcortical relay for most of the brain's sensory input and motor input - Cells have a centre-surround receptive field (responds to differences in light across their receptive field, e.g. light in centre, dark in surround) - Maintains a retinotopic map - Correlates signal from the retina in space and time ("Is an object moving towards me?", provides the early 3D representation of space for action)

Answer 29

- Extracts basic information from the visual scene (e.g. edges, orientations, wavelength of light) - Sends this information for later stages of processing of shape, colour, movement, etc. - Maintains retinotopy - Single-cell recordings by Hubel & Wiesel indicate that some cells respond to simple features (e.g. points of light) and others combine those features into more complex ones (e.g. adjacent points of light may combine into a line)

Answer 30

- Leads to a clinical diagnosis of cortical blindness (patient can't consciously report objects presented in this region of space)

Answer 31

- Means patient is still able to make some visual discriminations in the "blind" area (e.g. orientation, movement direction) - This because there are other routes from the eye to the brain - The geniculostriate route may be specialised for conscious vision but other routes act unconsciously - Filling-in of 'blind' regions similar to filling-in of normal blind spot - Patients with damage in primary visual cortex of brain can tell where an object is but claim they can't see it

Answer 32

V2, V3, V3A, V4, V5/MT

Answer 33

Posterior parietal regions, PST, TEO, superior temporal sulcus (STS), inferotemporal region (IT)

Answer 34

- Different parts of the visual cortex are specialised for different visual functions - The visual system resembles a team of workers, each of whom works on their own to solve part of a complex problem

Answer 35

- V1 and V2 - early stage of visual perception (e.g. shapes) - V3 and V3A - responsive to form (especially of moving objects) - V4 - responsive to colour - V5/MT - responsive to visual motion

Answer 36

That colour, form and motion are processed in anatomically separate parts of the visual cortex

Answer 37

- V4 more active for coloured than greyscale images -> specialised for colour - V5 more active for moving dots compared with static dots -> specialised for motion

Answer 38

- Because of damage to V4 (the colour centre of the brain) - But often also due to damage to V2 and V3 - V4 is involved in colour processing, but the link between colour processing and V4 isn't perfect

Answer 39

- Can be to the extent that patients with achromatopsia perceive colours for things that they know the colour of (e.g. have an experience of seeing a banana as yellow, because perhaps before their injury they were aware that bananas are yellow - so they might still experience it even if that colour information isn't being processed by their brain) - So there's bottom-up and top-down influences on V4 happening at the same time - So V4 is important for colour processing, but perhaps isn't the only place in which colour processing happens in the brain

Answer 40

- V5/MT is heavily involved in motion processing brain imaging studies of humans - Brain damage to V5/MT leads to akinetopsia Patient LM: - Bilateral damage to V5/MT - Was good at locating stationary objects - Had good colour vision - Motion perception was grossly deficient

Answer 41

- Sighted people don't perceive the colour of things separately to their shape, but in your brain those things are processed separately...so where in the brain is the thing that is perceived? - How are the different features bound together to enable coherent object processing? - Possible solution: coherent perception depends on synchronised neural activity between brain regions, which most likely depends on attention

Answer 42

- Where pathway - parietal (or dorsal) processing pathway - concerned with movement processing - "vision for action" (Found at the top back of brain) - What pathway - temporal (or ventral) processing pathway - concerned with colour and form processing - "vision for perception" (Found at the bottom back of brain)

Answer 43

- Patient DF has a lesion to her lateral occipital cortex; she has trouble locating and identifying objects - However, her conscious perception entirely different from the information that is available to her motor system - she has where but not what

Answer 44

- Damage to parietal/occipital lobe? removes conscious visual perception - Damage to parietal lobe? affects visual feature segregation and grouping - Damage to temporal lobe affects knowledge of what an object is/is for - Consistent with a hierarchical, multi-stage process

Answer 45

- We don't know, but probably - There is evidence that faces are processed more holistically than other objects - Evidence for face-specific brain regions (e.g. FFA), though this could be a visual expertise region too... - After brain injury, some patients appear to have impairment in face but object recognition (e.g. prosopagnosia), suggesting that faces are special

Answer 46

- Face recognition is a within-category discrimination (all faces look very similar) (features of faces are processed and subsequently remembered less than for other types of objects, such as houses) - Other object recognition is between-category (e.g. distinguishing a pen from a cup) - Maybe faces require different types of processing to other objects? - Faces are so important from a social/evolutionary perspective that they mat have a mechanism all to themselves?

Answer 47

Prosopagnosia - Prosop = "face" + agnosia = "without knowledge) -> Impairment of face processing that doesn't come from damage to early visual processing - De Renzi - Patient failed to recognise his own family but could do so by voice or clothes ("I guess you are my wife because there are no other women at home") - Could match different views of faces and name other objects -> Impairment at the stage of matching to stored information Fusiform Face Area (Gauthier) - Part of the ventral (what) stream - Responds to faces more than other types of objects in functional imaging experiments - Faces are special because we have become experts at within-category discriminations

Answer 48

- Sighted people are slower and less accurate at identifying inverted (upside down) faces - Typically interpreted as evidence of holistic processing - Qualitative differences in processing of upright and inverted faces? (e.g. spatial relational (holistic/configural) information is disproportionately affected by inversion, and therefore face recognition suffers)

Answer 49

1. Early visual processing (colour, motion, edges, etc.) 2. Perceptual segregation - grouping of visual elements (Gestalt principles, figure-ground segmentation) 3. Matching grouped visual description onto a representation of the object stored in the brain (called structural descriptions) 4. Attached meaning to the object (based on prior semantic knowledge)

Answer 50

Perceptual segregation: - Separating visual input into individual objects - Thought to occur before object recognition Gestalt Psychology - Fundamental principle: the "Law of Pragnanz" - Assumes a set of rules that operate early in visual processing

Answer 51

- Most evidence only descriptive, not explanatory - Relies heavily on introspection and evidence from 2D drawings - Some segmentation clearly occurs via top-down prior knowledge Segmentation processes aren't always bottom-up and following the laws of perceptual organisation - Task of the pp's was to push a button to say whether the two x's were on the same object or not - Participants were found to be quicker on the top objects, which are letters whereas the bottom ones aren't - You know the shape of the objects on the top (letters), whereas the shape of the objects on the bottom are unfamiliar

Answer 52

- Agnosia - impairment in object recognition (without primary visual deficits) - Different kinds of impairments should arise depending on the stage at which object recognition is damaged

Answer 53

Apperceptive agnosia - Impairment in the process which constructs a perceptual representation from vision (e.g. grouping) - Seeing the parts but not the whole - Associated with lateral occipital lobe damage (e.g. Patient HJA bad bilateral ventral-medial occipital damage; could recognise objects from touch but a marked impairment in visual object recognition (e.g. line drawings over silhouettes); had problems grouping or organising information (e.g. recognising any objects presented together with other objects, such as a paintbrush - saw the bristle and handle as two separate objects rather than one)) Associative agnosia - Impairment in the process which maps a perceptual representation onto knowledge of the objects functions and associations - Seeing the whole but not its meaning - Associated with occipito-temporal damage - Visual object agnosia - one of several varieties of associative agnosia - Patient LH (left) - preserved ability to copy drawings of objects, but unable to name them or show what they are for (no access of semantics); damage to occipito-temporal regions

Answer 54

- Most psychology research comes from white male Western researchers and participants - Westerners prioritise processing/categorising objects, while East Asians prioritise the relationships between objects and context - Less activation of "object perception" regions in East Asians than Westerners during scene viewing - Never assume that psychological "truths" apply to all of humanity

Answer 55

- Not all prosopagnosic patients are impaired on within-category discrimination - Patient WJ - owned a flock of sheep and could distinguish between them - Patient RM - could distinguish between his collection of 5000 miniature cars, but was unable to identify famous faces or his own and his wife's face

Answer 56

Need to work out at some point by watching what's said in lecture recording

Answer 57

- "The taking possession by the mind, in clear and vivid form, of one out of what may seem several simultaneously possible objects or trains of thought" - William James

Answer 58

- Inattentional blindness - Change blindness - Attentional blink

Answer 59

- We overestimate how much of the world we are actually aware of - Even very salient (attention-capturing) things can be missed

Answer 60

- Transparent/Umbrella - Transparent/Gorilla - Opaque/Umbrella - Opaque/Gorilla Two video styles: - Transparent: white team, black team, and unexpected event all filmed separately and superimposed onto each other - Opaque: white team, black team, and unexpected event all filmed simultaneously, so people and objects can be occluded (blocked) Two counting conditions: - Easy: count overall number of passes of your team - Hard: count aerial and bounce passes of your team separately Results: Higher percentage monkey seen in opaque conditions (opaque easy task, opaque hard task, transparent easy task, transparent hard task) Conclusion: - Inattentional blindness can be induced easily in healthy participants - It occurs more frequently if the display is transparent - Depends on the difficulty of the task: the more the primary task occupies attention, the less likely they are to see the gorilla/umbrella - So attention is a limited resource that you distribute

Answer 61

- A single central capacity (e.g. central executive; attention) that can be used flexibly - Strictly limited resources - Single pool shared between competing tasks - Dual task costs will emerge when two tasks exceed the total resource available - An experimental approach: Participants talking on a hands-free mobile phone while driving in the simulator

Answer 62

- We can make something invisible by showing it to people very quickly after showing them something else that is important to them Key ingredients: - Rapid visual stimuli (at ~ 10 Hz) - Pp's asked to look out for TWO targets and report if they saw them at the end of each trial - The first target is referred to as T1, and the second target as T2 - Masks/distractors need to follow T1 and T2 for the effect to work

Answer 63

- When your brain accesses the meaning of almost any stimulus (a word, picture, sound), we see a negative event-related potential (N400) - N400 reflects cognitive processes related to accessing the meaning (semantics) of a stimulus - If T2 is a meaningful word, does your brain process its meaning at all? - We can use the N4000 as a sign./marker that someone's brain is processing meaning, without them telling us their behaviour Luck et al.: - Classic AB to T2 - e.g. the word 'cat' is less likely to be seen when shown 300ms after T1 - BUT the N400 is pretty much the same size regardless of time since T1 - Therefore, even if you don't know that you saw T2, your brain still did some processing what it means

Answer 64

- T1, T2 and their masks/distractors are all encoded into a temporal buffer (e.g. visual short-term memory) - The AB is competition for retrieval among all items in short-term memory Isaak: - Reported that the AB increases with increasing number of task-irrelevant competitors/distractors A unified model: - Due to the mask following T1, increased attention is required to process T1 - This leaves less attention for processing of T2, which leaves T2 vulnerable to decay or interference from distractors

Answer 65

Dichotic listening tasks (Cherry) - Unattended auditory information is processed to a lower level of complexity than attended information - 1/3 of participants report hearing their name in the unattended channel - Easier if voices are physically different (bottom-up processing) Johnsrude: - A familiar voice is easier to pay attention to AND easier to ignore - We use our own experiences of the world to help to solve the cocktail party problem (top-down processing) - Target = voice to attend to - Masker = voice to ignore - Novel baseline = both unfamiliar voices - X-axis shows volume of target relative to masker

Answer 66

- Parallel input into sensory register - Inputs are then filtered on the basis of its physical characteristics - Filtering prevents overloading of the limited capacity mechanism - Inputs remaining in the buffer after filter are available for later (semantic) processing - Accounts for Cherry's basic findings (unattended stimuli only undergo minimal processing before being filtered) - Accounts for findings from dichotic listening task (filter selects an input on the basis of the most prominent physical characteristic distinguishing the inputs) - BUT - At least some parts of the unattended stream are processed semantically (e.g. hearing your name within a conversation you're not paying attention to) - Stimuli that people don't report ever experiencing can still change their behaviour (e.g. blindsight from last week)

Answer 67

- All stimuli are fully analysed - The bottleneck occurs late, before the response - The most relevant stimulus determined what response is made - But, early sensory event-related potentials (~ 100ms post-stimulus) are smaller if unattended - Places the bottleneck much earlier during processing - Results favour Treisman's perspective

Answer 68

- Unattended information is attenuated/filtered after the sensory register - Stimulus analysis proceeds through a hierarchy from physical characteristics of the stimulus up to its meaning and beyond - When capacity is reached, tests at the top of the hierarchy are precluded for all but the 'attended' stimulus - Precise location of the bottleneck is more flexible than in Broadbent's model (looking at images of all three theories will make them easier to understand)

Answer 69

- Initially, the field considered a distinction between early (e.g. Broadbent) and late (e.g. Deutsch & Deutsch) selection - In reality, it's probably flexible and influenced by many top-down and bottom-up processes

Answer 70

- Sighted people can pay attention to a part of space that they aren't directly looking at (called "covert attention") Typical results: - Endogenous attention - choosing to pay attention to a particular part of space makes you react faster to things that happen in that part of space - Exogenous attention - the same is true of your attention being drawn to that part of space without you intending to, BUT ONLY if the something happens in that part of space very quickly after you shift your attention to it - So, two different systems with different functions

Answer 71

Endogenous System: - Controlled by the individual's intentions and expectations - Involved when central cues are presented - Top-down (1/4 front top of brain) Exogenous System: - Automatically shifts attention - Involved when uninformative peripheral cues are presented - Stimuli that are salient or that differ from other stimuli are most likely to be attended - Bottom-up (3/4 back middle of brain)

Answer 72

- Searching a cluttered visual environment for task-relevant information is difficult - When Wally (target) shared one or more features with other things in the image (distractors) (e.g. red white stripes) it's even processed

Answer 73

- Feature search - target has a unique feature that isn't shared by other items in the display, and therefore "pops out" (e.g. red A amongst blue A's) - Conjunction search - target has no unique feature that isn't shared by other items in the display, making visual search more difficult (e.g. red A amongst blue A's and red H's)

Answer 74

- Perceptual features are encoded in parallel and prior to attention - If an object has a unique perceptual feature, then it may be detected without the need for attention ("pop out") - If an object shares features with other objects, then it can't be detected from a single perceptual feature and spatial attention is needed to search all candidates serially - In other words, an object is only an object if you pay attention to it

Answer 75

1. Rapid initial parallel process to identify features (attention-independent) 2. Next, a slow serial process to form objects by combining features (focused visual attention binds the features into an object; feature combination can be influenced by prior knowledge, e.g. bananas are yellow) Object in front of you -> pre-attentive processing of visual features -> focused attention to bind features -> perception of object

Answer 76

- When focused attention is absent (e.g. very brief presentations, or presentation outside focus on attention) - When relevant stored knowledge is absent - When spatial attention is diverted - When display is presented in peripheral vision Illusory conjunctions aren't just guessing! - They can occur with high confidence - They don't occur under all circumstances that decrease performance - Illusory conjunctions happen across space but not time! (e.g. when the two stimuli are presented at the same location across time, subjects don't commit conjunction errors)

Answer 77

- Argues that an object is an object if it's attended to However, negative priming tasks (e.g. Tipper) show semantic (meaning) processing of unattended stimuli

Answer 78

Strengths: - An important contribution to explaining what happens within the attentional spotlight - Influenced thinking on a variety of topics from early sensory encoding to later attentional control Weaknesses: - Doesn't explain why the similarity of distractors is influntial - Neglect/extinction patients have problems with both conjunctive and single-feature targets

Answer 79

- In real world search, people usually have expectations of where to find certain things - Prior knowledge can make search more efficient - Ehinger - found that observers fixate (look at) relevant parts of scene very early on - Wolfe assumes a simultaneous mix of serial and parallel strategies for visual search, whereas in FIT processing moves from parallel (pre-attentive) to serial (attentive) Early pre-attentive processes produce an activation map, where each item in the display has its own level of activation (according to how "promising" it is) (object with the greatest activation receives attention first) - Combines top-down and bottom-up processing for efficient search

Answer 80

Procedure: - Each pp completed 20 trials altogether - On each trial, 21 random letters were presented at a rate of 10 Hz - The 7th letter in the stream was red - we call this T1 - The letter 'x' occurred after T1 on half of the trials - we call this T2 Participants: - Undergraduate students - All students participated in the same experiment - Sample size - 288 pp's Task: - Each pp completed 2 tasks: a dual detection task and a single detection task Dual detection task - Pp's were told: "After each trial, you'll be asked: 1) what letter was written in red, and 2) whether you saw the letter 'x'" (e.g. they had to detect both T1 AND T2) Single detection task - Pp's were told: "Ignore the red letters and just try to detect whether there is an X or not" (e.g. they ONLY had to detect T2) (10 trials per task for a total of 20 trials) Position of T2 relative to T1: - In half of the trials, T2 occurred 300 ms after T1 (e.g. lag 3/short delay) - In half of the trials, T2 occurred 700 ms after T1 (e.g. lag 7/long delay)

Answer 81

Single detection task: - Short lag = 90 - Long lag = 93 Dual detection task: - Short lag = 30 - Long lag = 67

Answer 82

- Two strokes damaging large areas of bilateral occipito-parietal cortex - Simultanagnosia - unable to focus attention on more that one object at a time - Problems combining features of a stimulus (made conjunction errors even when seeing objects for 10 seconds) - Parietal lobe ("where" pathway) is important for feature binding

Answer 83

- During conjunction search, the posterior temporal cortex and parietal cortex show increased activation over baseline control conditions - Walsh - transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) performed to parietal lobe disru0pts conjunction search, but not feature search - Esterman - stimulation of intraparietal sulcus reduces illusory conjunctions

Answer 84

A lack of awareness of stimuli presented to the side of space on the opposite side to the brain damage (contralesional) Contralesion - opposite side of the damage - "contra" - opposite - "lesion" - damage

Answer 85

Cancellation task: - Patient with hemispatial neglect given a piece of paper with individual lines on it and instructed to draw a line through each of them to turn them into crosses - Found they ignored the lines on the left-hand side of the paper, as they weren't aware of these lines Line bisection: - Patient with hemispatial neglect given a piece of paper with a horizontal line on it and instructed to draw a vertical line through the middle of it - Found that they drew the line slightly to the right, as they weren't aware that the line continued a bit onto the left-hand side Copying: - Patient with hemispatial neglect asked to copy line drawings - Found that they were aware of what was one the left-hand side of the drawing (e.g. missing the numbers on the left-hand side of the clock, missing the windows on the left hand-side of the house, missing the left-hand side of the cat) - Lack of awareness of things happening on the contralesional side of space - typically the left because usually neglect comes from damage to the right parietal lobe

Answer 86

- Two patients with neglect were asked to imagine and describe the Piazza del duomo in Milan - Both reported primarily the objects on the shared side of space (e.g. they had representational neglect) - Had two patients who would spend lots of time in the square outside the duomo in Milan - After their injury, thy were asked to imagine they were sitting at the steps of the cathedral in the square and describe what they saw - Found patients generally never described anything that was one the contralesional side of space - so primarily described things on the right-hand side - Then asked them to imagine they were sitting on the other side of the square (facing where they were previously sitting) and asked them to describe what they saw - Found they described only things that were on the right-hand side of the square from their point of view (as if they have neglect for things in their mind's eye)

Answer 87

- External sensory information - Information in the "mind's eye" (representational neglect) - Bodily space (e.g. neglect to shave the other side of their face)

Answer 88

- Often object-based irrespective of the object's position in space - Example: ignoring the left-hand side of all objects (e.g. tree, house), rather than only the objects on the left-hand side - Unilateral neglect - "one side", neglect to just one side

Answer 89

First trial: - Ask a patient with extinction what they see and you flash the frog quickly so it's in their left visual field - Patients with extinction with say "I can see a frog" - Patient with neglect won't necessarily report that, because it's on the contralesional side of space Middle trial: - Where you flash the sun on the right-hand side - Extinction patients - "I can see the sun" - Neglect patients - "I can see the sun Final trial: - Briefly flash the frog and the sun (frog on the left-hand side of space, sun on the right-hand side of space) - Extinction patients - will only report seeing the thing on the ipsilesional side of space ("ipsi" - the same, the same side as the injury), so they will just report that they saw the sun and will have no awareness that a frog was also presented (can experience them, but only when they're presented on their own; if there's competition (one object on left and one on right), one on right seems to win (one on ipsilesional side wins and one on contralesional side loses) - Suggest maybe attention is actually something that just appears (outcome of the fact that there are multiple representations in the visual world and they're all competing

Answer 90

- Often found in patients suffering from neglect, but can occur independently - Patients detect a single stimulus presented to one visual field (typically left), but fail to detect the same stimulus when another stimulus is simultaneously presented to the other field

Answer 91

- Neglect patients benefit from valid endogenous (originating from the body) cues in both visual fields - Experiment in which cue on the right (intact) field predicted stimulus on the left - Patients benefits as much as healthy controls from valid cue - Both studies suggests that endogenous orienting system is relatively intact in neglect patients

Answer 92

- Neglect patients most impaired when trying to disengage attention from intact side - Attended hemisphere exerts a "hold" signal - The invalid target should engage the exogenous (originating outside the body) system, but it doesn't

Answer 93

- Prevalence following right brain damage - Particularly related to disengagement of the attentional spotlight from the ipsilesional side of space - Evidence suggests problems with exogenous attention disproportionately more than with the endogenous attention

Answer 94

-Most common neurodevelopmental disorder diagnosis in children (~ 5%) - Symptoms - hyperactivity, impulsivity and inattention, beginning in childhood - 3x more likely in boys than girls, but this also reflects prescribing bias - 4x more likely in socio-economic deprivation - Increased likelihood of risk-tasking behaviours in adolescence - Still has a prevalence of 2.5% in adulthood

Answer 95

Predominantly inattentive - Difficulty in finishing a task - Difficulty in following instructions - Easily distracted Predominantly hyperactive/impulsive - Difficulty in sitting still for long periods - Fidgeting - Speaking or acting at inappropriate times Combining inattentive and hyperactive/impulsive - Most common subtype

Answer 96

At least 6 required: - Poor attention to details, makes careless mistakes in schoolwork/homework/other activities - Difficulty in sustaining attention - Doesn't appear to listen when spoken to directly - Doesn't follow instructions or finish tasks - Has difficulty organising tasks and activites - Avoids/dislikes tasks that require sustained mental effort - Loses things necessary for tasks/activities - Easily distracted - Forgetful in daily activities

Answer 97

- Fidgets with hands/feet and squirms in seat - Leaves seat when expected to remain there - Runs about excessively and inappropriately - Difficulty in playing quietly - Always 'on the go' - Talks excessively - Blurts out answers before the question is complete - Can't wait for their turn - Interrupts/intrudes on others

Answer 98

- Symptoms present before age of 12 - Clinically significant impairment in social or academic/occupational functioning - Some symptoms that cause impairment are present in 2 or more settings (e.g. school/work, home, recreational) - Not due to another disorder (e.g. autism, mood/anxiety disorder)

Answer 99

- Heritability - parents/siblings of a child with a diagnosis of ADHD are 4-5 times more likely to have a diagnosis of ADHD - Pre-natal exposure to alcohol and nicotine - Premature birth and low birth weight - Prenatal brain injury - Environmental toxins (e.g. lead, pesticides)

Answer 100

Structural: - 3-4% reduced overall cortical and especially pre-frontal volume - Reduced grey matter, specifically in fronto-parietal attention network - Reduced cortical connectivity (white matter tracts) between hemispheres and within fronto-parietal attention networks Functional: - Hypoactivity in pre-frontal cortex, especially dACC Molecular: - Imbalance in dopamine and noradrenaline circuits - Reduced volume, activity, and connectivity in brain regions also linked to the endogenous attention system - But also to those linked to executive functions

Answer 101

- Methylphenidate (e.g. Ritalin) and Dextroamphetamine (e.g. Attentin) are effective and commonly prescribed - They function by blocking the reuptake of norepinephrine (NOR) and dopamine (DOP) and facilitating their release, enhancing availability in pre-frontal cortex and basal ganglia

Answer 102

- A complex disorder with genetic/environmental and societal influences - Linked to hypoactivity within the endogenous attention network, and the pre-frontal cortex - Medication is effective in reducing symptoms and increase quality of life (via modulation of the dopamine and norepinephrine systems)

Answer 103

- The "conductor of the brain orchestra" - They coordinate other brain modules to enable flexible, purposeful, goal-directed behaviour

Answer 104

- Needed to optimise performance in situations that require coordination between several cognitive processes (e.g. completing a psychology experiment) - Supervisory, controlling, or meta-cognitive, rather than specific to one domain (memory, perception, language, motor) - Linked to distinction between automatic and controlled behaviour (latter requires executive functions) - Strongly linked to prefrontal cortex Certain situations (Norman and Shallice): 1. Situations involving planning/decision making 2. Situations involving error correction/troubleshooting 3. Situations where responses aren't well-learned or contain novel sequences of action 4. Situations judged to be dangerous/technically difficult 5. Situations that require the overcoming of a strong habitual response/resisting temptation

Answer 105

- Detection of errors and detection of response conflict (e.g. potential errors) - Monkeys with lesions here don't troubleshoot after making an error - The "error potential" at scalp may originate here - fMRI shows activity greatest on error trial, but lateral PFC greatest on error +1 trial - Suggests ACC detects but doesn't correct errors

Answer 106

- PFC is connected to almost all of the rest of the brain - Three surfaces - lateral, medial and orbital - Later surface implicated in "cold" control processes (cognitive aspects), orbital and medial more implicated in "hot" control (emotional/social regulation of behaviour)

Answer 107

- Assumes division of PFC into at least two separate processes - maintenance (retention) and manipulating (updating) Frontal: - Manipulation and monitoring (DLPFC) - Maintain activity and retrieve information (VLPFC) Non-frontal: - Storage site of information (posterior cortex)

Answer 108

- PFC is connected to almost all of the rest of the brain - Three surfaces - lateral, medial and orbital - Later surface implicated in "cold" control processes (cognitive aspects), orbital and medial more implicated in "hot" control (emotional/social regulation of behaviour)

Answer 109

- That there are no 'executive functions', just one general underlying function - In support of this, patients' performance on many tests of executive function are correlated with each other, and with fluid intelligence - Single-cell recording of PFC neurons in monkeys show that they change their responsiveness flexibly according to task demands, so any part of PFC may be be able to do any 'executive function' given the right circumstances?

Answer 110

- Executive functions - functions that allow you to complete a task - Supported by the prefrontal cortex - Possible that there aren't different types of executive function, but just one underlying high-level ability of healthy humans: to breakdown a complex task into manageable parts and perform each in order (possibly the same as fluid intelligence?)

Answer 111

A change in an organism's behaviour as a result of experience

Answer 112

The ability to recall or recognise previous experience

Answer 113

A mental representation of a previous experience

Answer 114

- Gives us a past and a future, without it we are controlled by the present and can only react to what is in front of us - Allows learning, transcends the present, storing, retaining, (active) reconstruction, transcending the present and planning for the future (e.g. taxi drivers having a mental map - know exactly where they need to go to get somewhere) (positive relationship - the longer you work as a taxi driver, the larger the grey matter in your posterior hippocampus)

Answer 115

- What - memory phenomena people experience in normal life - Autobiographical memory - memory for events in one's own life - How - ecological validity (representative - naturalness of experiments; generalisable - applicable to real life) - Where - naturalistic setting

Answer 116

- Content (e.g. are the crucial items of information remembered) is more important that accuracy (e.g. how many items are remembered) - Autobiographical memories are often memories inside memories - Note: complementary not antagonistic - Related to and involves episodic memory and semantic memory in traditional memory research

Answer 117

- Schema - integrated knowledge structure for things; captures commonly encountered aspects of life - Allows us to form expectations - Helps us to draw inferences (go beyond the explicit information provided based on knowledge of the world) - Memory - interaction between event and our own pre-existing schemata (general knowledge, beliefs, expectations, etc.)

Answer 118

Schema-relevant - better memory than schema-irrelevant - Schema-congruent - schema can provide retrieval cues (e.g. waiter wearing a nice suit) - Schema-incongruent - elaboration, attracted attention (e.g. waiter wearing pyjamas) Schema-irrelevant - no good memory (e.g. wouldn't have a good memory for the colour of the waiter's eyes)

Answer 119

Example: Mary heard the ice cream van, she remembered the pocket money, she rushed inside the house Inferences: she wants an ice cream, buying one costs money, she had some pocket money in the house, she ran into her own house, has to be fast, etc.

Answer 120

Schemas - Determine how we process story information - Determine what we remember from stories - Can change and be updated over time Remembering = reproduction/reconstruction of an event - Schema-based inferences: - Schemas are packets of knowledge which can distort our memory - Produce a coherent, but not necessarily accurate, story - Rationalisations: making it in line with own (cultural) expectations - Reconstruction of an event based on 'what must have been true' - Also for eyewitnesses Memory - combination of memory traces and general world knowledge

Answer 121

Almost total lack of autobiographical memories from first 3 years of life

Answer 122

1. Freud - repression - repression of sexual feelings towards parents 2. Neurological (e.g. hippocampus and frontal lobes are still developing) 3. Underdeveloped schemas/semantic memory 4. Language development 5. Emergent cognitive self - unique and identifiable entity, self-recognition around 18 months 6. Multi-component

Answer 123

- Average age of 1st memory - 3.8 for US, 5.4 for Chinese, and more elaborate and emotional memories for US participants - Related to how mothers talk to children, more focused on the past, and more individual emphasis in the US

Answer 124

Lots of memories from age 15-25

Answer 125

1. Neurological view - brain "peak" - brain is neither maturing nor declining 2. Identity formation view - time of important decisions, which also shape future; life script, or life narrative: coherent, integrated account of who we are and how we became like this; sense of adult identity 3. Cognitive view - primary view: better memory for first time events, less proactive interference; should also be apparent at other times when there is a great deal of change and experience with 'firsts' (immigrant study)

Answer 126

- Truthful to the gist of actual experiences - Tendency to place ourselves centre-stage - Tendency for favourable view of present self

Answer 127

- Questioned students before and after exams: questions on expected grades, validity of tests, how well students were prepared/how much they studied, how important marks were - If better than expected mark = number of studied hours same, but now more likely to say that mark was more important - If worse than expected mark = claimed to have done less work, claimed grades aren't that important, and tests less valid

Answer 128

- Highly detailed and vivid memories for surprising events that are relatively resistant to forgetting (e.g. 9/11, Lady Di, etc.) - Features: where were you, what were you doing, how did you feel?; a mechanism that acts like a camera to record details in certain emotional situations - Most research does NOT show higher accuracy or consistency for flashbulb memories; same rate of forgetting Talarico & Rubin - study compared memory of 9/11 to recent everyday event - No differences, number of consistent details went down over time - But believed more strongly that the flashbulb memory was accurate and said more often that it felt as if they were reliving the experience

Answer 129

- Childhood amnesia - Reminiscence bump - Flashbulb memories

Answer 130

"Pure" memory doesn't exist, it's always reinterpreted

Answer 131

You will have a schema of what should be in an office, and therefore you will have an expectation that there is a computer in the photo even when there isn't - Fills in gaps in memory and distorts your memory

Answer 132

Raised her hand to encourage others to do the same - Action which suggests others should do the same Including misleading information in the list of possible items - A computer wasn't present, but because it was suggested it made it appear as though it could be)

Answer 133

48% - In instances here, DNA retrospectively proved people to be innocent, the large majority had been found guilty based on mistaken eyewitness testimonies - Witness confidence isn't a good predictor - Cross-racial identification is harder than inter-racial - Judges and jurors insufficiently aware about problems with eyewitness testimonies

Answer 134

W-W better than W-B; B-B better than B-W - Expertise hypothesis - more experience distinguishing faces of same race - Social-cognitive hypothesis - more thorough facial processing of faces of the in-group compared to the out-group Expertise/experience only small effect - Cross-race effect eliminated by just instructing to pay close attention to all faces Social-cognitive hypothesis - Shriver: over in-group faces well recognised - Also own-age bias

Answer 135

Darkness, distance, duration, lighting, etc. 1. Lighting conditions significantly influence accuracy 2. Identification of person during full moon more than 3 meters away is very dubious

Answer 136

Stress, violence, etc. 1. Yerkes-Dodson law - optimal level of arousal 2. Memory for central aspects of a violent event better than a non-violent event, but worse memory for peripheral aspects - Loftus - stress causes narrowing of attention 3. Weapon focus - Not just level of threat that is important - Unexpectedness of a weapon in context, weapon focus greater when unexpected

Answer 137

Time (decay, interference) (memory degrades over time) 1. Forgetting curve is Ebbinghausian in nature: sharp drop within 20 minutes, continued forgetting until levelling out of 2 days after event 2. Children forget faster -> videotape asap (videotape children's testimonies as soon as possible since they forget quickly) Interference 1. Unconscious transference: correctly recognises face, but assigned incorrectly to perpetrator 2. Donald Thomson (falsely accused of rape, as his face was on the tv while the rape was taking place) 3. Proactive interference (information before the event) (Lindsay - video of museum burglary: day before heard story about palace burglary or palace visit, many more errors if thematically similar story was heard)

Answer 138

Questioning, expectations, misrememberings, etc. Leading questions, misinformation paradigm 1. Subjects view an event 2. Subjects are exposed to (misleading) information about the event 3. Subjects are tested for recall of the event to determine if the misleading information has had an effect -> Retroactive interference

Answer 139

- Perceptual stage (darkness, distance, duration, lighting, etc.) - Encoding stage (stress, violence, etc.) - Storage stage (time: decay, interference) - Retrieval stage (questioning, expectations, misrememberings, etc.) In general, we perceive and remember selectively and use imagination to fill in gaps (influence of schemas) Focus on evidence that confirms one's hypothesis; you remember what you expect to see (confirmation bias)

Answer 140

- No! - Blatant misinformation doesn't work, and also leads to mistrust of more subtle attempts

Answer 141

- 50% when misinformation is presented immediately after viewing the event, compared to 20% one week later

Answer 142

Loftus and Palmer: - Film of crash: "How fast were the cars going when they XXXX each other?" - Week later: broken glass? - 32% of "smashed" category reported seeing broken glass, versus 14% of "hit" category (there was no broken glass) Loftus and Zanni: - "Did you see a/the broken headlight?" - When no broken headlight in movie, 7% said they saw one when prompted by "a headlight", 16% saw one when asked about "the headlight"

Answer 143

Source misattribution: - Source of post-event information memory trace is wrongly attributed to the original event Vacancy memory slot: - Misinformation more likely to be accepted if original correct information didn't get stored Memory coexistence: - Both original and misleading information, but misleading is ore recent -> obscures other memory trace - If there is reconsolidation, this makes memory trace more fragile; misleading information alters and updates the original memory trace Blending: - Correct information and misinformation combined together Response bias

Answer 144

Studied CVC nonsense syllables (e.g. PAB, SER, NID) to exclude prior knowledge and understanding - 2,300 syllables, read out with metronome - In lists of about 20 items Recall - tested himself: gave himself first item of a list, had to recall the other ones Insight in learning (Law of Repetition) and forgetting (Savings method)

Answer 145

More (maintenance) rehearsal -> better retention

Answer 146

- Acquisition/Encoding How new information is placed in memory - Storage How and where it's help in memory ("memory trace") Probably 2 steps: temporary memory trace in hippocampus, then integration in cortical information networks) - Retrieval "Remembering", memory brought back into active use

Answer 147

- Sensory input goes into sensory memory - Sensory memory goes into short-term memory due to attention - Information is kept in short-term memory due to rehearsal - Information is then stored in long-term memory

Answer 148

- Sensory store fills in the blanks where there is intermittent stimulation - Function: to keep sensory information in mind so we can attend to it - Unattended information is quickly lost - Memories are stored for milliseconds to seconds

Answer 149

- Unrehearsed information is quickly lost - Memories are stored for seconds to minutes

Answer 150

- Some information may be lost over time - Memories are stored for days, years, infinitely

Answer 151

George Sperling

Answer 152

- Brief presentation (50 ms) of letters in 3x4 matrix - Full report: Name as many letters as possible Results: 4 letters named Is that the capacity limit? No. People have the feeling they saw more than 4 - Brief report: One of three tones sounded to indicate which row people have to start with Tone could be just prior (-100 ms) or up to 1 second after display was removed

Answer 153

Capacity - Large amount held in iconic memory Duration - After 200-500 ms, performance approached full-report condition - Information in iconic memory decays rapidly (+/- 0.5 s) - Anything left was transferred to short-term memory before it was lost - All letters were held in sensory memory for a short time, but decayed rapidly; tone acts as a spatial attention cue; attention -> STM

Answer 154

Function - Conscious processing of information - Attention is the key (limits what information comes under the spotlight of STM at any given time) Limited capacity (magical number 7 +/- 2 (Miller)) - Chunking - grouping familiar stimuli for storage as a single unit - What you can chunk depends on knowledge (from LTM)/expertise you have and ability to find patterns - Chunk - meaningful unit of information ("information bottleneck") - Cowan - argues the number is probably closer to 4 Limited duration - If not rehearsed, information is lost within +/- 15.20 seconds - The longer the delay, the more was forgotten (decay, displacement) - Rehearsal - the process of repetitively verbalising or thinking about the information

Answer 155

Forgetting only due to time delay - Pro-active versus retro-active interference - Pro-active - old learning interferes with new memory (order of events, e.g. calling the second person you see the name of the first person you saw; learn A interferes with learn B) - Retro-active - new learning interferes with old memory (learn B interferes with learn A) Release from pro-active interference (PI) - Previous trials generate interference - Gradual decline in performance - When nature of stimulus changes (e.g. letters to numbers), again accurate recall Evidence for decay of information in STM - At short retention intervals (< 3.3s) - However, interference is the more likely cause of forgetting, especially at somewhat longer intervals - When stimuli are similar - When learning large volumes of information - When learning material close together in time - When learning in the same context (No good independent evidence for displacement) Other criticisms of STM component in the multi-store model - Information in STM doesn't need to be processed consciously (e.g. implicit learning) - Simple rehearsal doesn't ensure LTM storage (rehearsed information doesn't necessarily transfer to LTM; information in LTM hasn't necessarily been rehearsed during learning) - Learning in STM affected by LTM (e.g. for chunking) - Double dissociation found in patients supports STM - LTM distinction (but some patients with severely impaired STM can still acquire LTM memories)

Answer 156

Recast short-term memory as working memory - New model developed to address some criticisms of multi-store model - Loss of information not only due to decay - Different types of working memory (WM): short-term memory store is replaced by 4 working memory components

Answer 157

- Once information passes from sensory to short-term memory, it can be encoded into long-term memory - Function: organises and stored information; different systems: explicit/declarative, implicit/non-declarative - Capacity: unlimited? - Duration: permanent?

Answer 158

- Attention, rehearsal, encoding, and retrieval - Govern movement of information within and between stored

Answer 159

- Necessary for language understanding, mental arithmetic, reasoning, problem solving, etc. - Multi-component; different systems - Single short-term memory store is replaced by 4 working memory components

Answer 160

- Central executive - Phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad (2 "slave" systems) - Episodic buffer (added later)

Answer 161

- If 2 tasks use the same component, they can't be performed successfully together - If 2 tasks use different components, it should be possible to perform them as well together as separately =

Answer 162

- Role: temporary storage of speech-like information ("verbal STM") - Purpose: holding onto information, language acquisition device - 2 primary structures: Phonological loop ("inner ear") - Temporary storehouse, passive - Limited in time (+/- 2 s) and capacity - Code = speech-based Articulatory loop ("inner voice") - Active rehearsal component - Linked to speech

Answer 163

Phonological loop

Answer 164

1. Phonological similarity effect - Errors more likely to be phonologically similar to correct item (e.g. F for S, B for G) - More likely to misremember if items in list sound similar (e.g. are phonologically similar - D B C T G P harder than K W T Q L R; mad cap man map harder than pen day cow bar) - Items in phonological store based on phonological code - Reduces discriminability of items in store 2. Word length effect - The memory span for short words is greater than for long words (e.g. you are able to recall more shorter words) - Effect is due to articulation duration, not number of syllables (so it's evidence for the PL) - The span for words like bishop and wicket (shorter articulation duration - 2 syllables) is greater than for words like harpoon or labile (longer articulation duration - 2 syllables) - The span is as many words as the articulatory loop can actively rehearse within 2 seconds - Thus: it's the articulation duration that matters - That is why people with a faster speaking rate language (e.g. Chinese) seem to have a larger span - they can simply actively rehearse more words in the articulatory loop 3. Unattended speech effect - Performance impaired if other verbal material needs to be ignored - Even with nonsense syllables, if it's in a different language, with vocal music, with instrumental music, with very loud white noise - Irrelevant spoken material can gain access to phonological store (filter to distinguish between noise and speech) - Not a good idea to study with music with vocals, with tv on in the background, in places where people are talking, etc. 4. Articulatory suppression effect - Articulatory suppression (saying "thethethe...") while learning items, when the to-be-learned items are presented visually, will: Result in the speaker not being able to use sub-vocal articulation That is evidence by the word length effect disappearing - Articulatory suppression (saying "thethethe...") while learning items, when the to-be-learned items are presented auditory, will: Have no effect on sub-vocal articulation, because the to-be-learned items have direct access to the phonological store That is evident by the word length effect NOT disappearing There is overall worse performance (as you have usually when you have to do two things at the same time)

Answer 165

- A system for setting up and manipulating images and spatial movement - Limited capacity system for processing spatial, visual, and kinaesthetic information Two components: - Visual cache - visual information about shape and colour (the "what") - Inner scribe - spatial and movement information (the "where") Two distinct components - interference depends on secondary task Function - construction, maintenance, and manipulation of mental images -> isomorphic relation to perceptual images (better at identifying the components of an image if the mental image is large)

Answer 166

- Manipulation of information in visual-spatial sketchpad (e.g. learn map of island and keep in mind, then scan from well to tree, mental scanning between two imagined landmarks increases linearly as the distance between them increases (go from well to lake, versus go from well to palm trees) - Neurophysiological findings (e.g. different brain areas active during visual (occipital) and spatial (parietal) working memory tasks - But: extensive interaction with other cognitive systems and the central executive -> really independent?

Answer 167

- 3D figure pairs - same-different? - Angular difference between the orientation of the two figures was systematically varied (0 degrees to 180 degrees) - Time to answer proportional to amount of (mental) rotation required

Answer 168

- Attentional system - maintain task goals and goal-related information and use this to direct/bias your processing - Attention capacity is limited; no storage - Most important and active component, but not as well understood Directing attention to task, updating of task at hand Switching/shifting between strategies Selective attention and inhibition - Probably in prefrontal cortex (but not exclusively) Patients with frontal lobe damage: problems of attentional control

Answer 169

Dysexecutive syndrome - Disruption of central executive due to frontal lobe damage - Perseverance - sort deck of cards by suit: ok, can't then sort by value -> can't interrupt ongoing schema - Utilisation behaviour - automatic responding to cues in environment -> fail to focus attention - Catatonia - remain motionless and speechless for hours -> unable to initiate schemas - Patients don't all have the same single pattern of impairment, suggesting different parts of prefrontal cortex are responsible for different aspects of executive functioning Alzheimer's patients - Problems with distributing attention between two tasks (central executive function) - 2 tasks together: patients show disproportional decline in performance

Answer 170

- Phonological loop and visuo-spatial sketchpad are modality specific (verbal versus visual/spatial) - Episodic buffer can integrate information into single complex structure of episode - Can hold about 4 pieces/chunks of information in multidimensional code - Episodic buffer assists in binding - integrating information about location, colour, size, smell, feel, etc. of objects and scenes - Interacts with both perception and long-term memory

Answer 171

- Working memory capacity correlates with fluid intelligence - Also related to attention control: high-capacity individuals less likely to be distracted by external (e.g. outside noise) and internal (mind-wandering) stimuli

Answer 172

- Recency effect - better memory for last few items on the list (high point at end of graph) - Primacy effect - better memory for first few items on the list (usually not as good as most recent items) (high-ish point at start of graph) - Worst performance for items in the middle - taken as dissociation of memory function: short-term and long-term memory

Answer 173

- Type 1: straightforward free recall task (1 second presentation rate) - Type 2: straightforward free recall task - but with slower presentation rate (3 seconds instead of 1 second) - Type 3: presentation rate of 1 second per word; however, at the end of the list there was a mathematical formula that had to be solved - Type 4: the words were presented for 1 second with a simple equation after each word; after 5 seconds the next word appeared

Answer 174

- Ratio rule is important (it increases or decreases the distinctiveness of the items) - The regency effect depends on the ratio between the inter-item presentation interval (IPI - how quickly presented) and the retention interval (RI - time interval between end of study and phase and test of memory) - Type 3: RI becomes larger -> ratio score becomes smaller (1/5 rather than 1/1) -> smaller recency effect - Type 4: both IPI and RI increase -> same ration (e.g. 3/3 = 1/1) -> same recency effect as in Type 1

Answer 175

- Long-term recency effects (Pinto & Baddeley) Also recency effects when LTM is tested (e.g. parking locations) - Patient data Amnesic patients: bad at remembering for a longer time (LTM), but good at STM tasks (Carlesimo) Alzheimer patients: no recency effect but (reduced) primary effect (Bayley) -> Double dissociation

Answer 176

- Skills - how to ride a bike - Habits - putting the tea bag in the cup before the water - Images - the memory of your mother's face - The meaning of the word "googled" - Producing the first word that comes to mind when you hear "grass" - Repeated actions - getting something for lunch today, just like you did yesterday

Answer 177

Long-term memory leads to: Declarative (explicit) memory - facts and events (semantic and episodic) Non-declarative (implicit) memory - priming, procedural (skills and habits), associative learning (classical and operant conditioning), non-associative learning (habituation and sensitisation)

Answer 178

Explicit/declarative memory - Ability to recall what one knows, to detail the time, place, and circumstances of events - Conscious memory: subjects can retrieve an item and indicate that they know that the retrieved item is the correct item Implicit/non-declarative memory - Ability to recall a movement sequence or how to perform some act or behaviour - Unconscious memory: subjects can demonstrate knowledge (e.g. a skill, conditioned response, or recalling events on prompting), but can't explicitly retrieve the information - There is little difference between the implicit-explicit distinction and the non-declarative-declarative distinction - Terms used most frequently in most recent years: declarative versus non-declarative

Answer 179

Procedural memory - Skills, how to perform certain actions (e.g. riding your bike) - Procedural learning occurs slowly and gradually Priming - Processing a stimulus is influenced by prior encounter with the same or a related stimulus; usually occurs rapidly (e.g. cat (prime) followed by a picture of cat (target); cat (prime) followed by reading the word dog (target)) - The repeated presentation of a stimulus means it can be processed more efficiently using fewer resources - Repetition suppression effect - priming effect in the brain (e.g. when reading words, the brain areas responsible for reading words need fewer resources the second time the word is present, so there is a suppression effect in these brain areas

Answer 180

Encoding memories - Implicit information is processed in a "bottom-up" or data-driven manner (information is encoded in the same way it was perceived) - Explicit information is processed in a "top-down" or conceptually driven manner (the subject is able to recognise the information) - In implicit tasks, the person has a passive role, whereas in explicit tasks, the person has an active role - Both priming and procedural memory are implicit memory: information that is learned implicitly, without intention to learn, or awareness that the information is learned

Answer 181

- Not just at the level of encoding (learning), but also at the level of retrieval - Same item can also be retrieved in more than one way - it depends on the task! - Free recall = explicit; e.g. recall all words in any order - Cued recall = explicit; e.g. what words did you study together with "breakfast"? - Yes/no recognition = explicit; e.g. which did you study: leopard or lion? - Lexical decision = implicit; e.g. word or not: "leopard", "loni", etc. - Word fragment completion = implicit; e.g. fill in the missing letters to form any word: _e_p__d - Word stem completion = implicit; e.g. fill in the missing letters to form any word: leop___

Answer 182

- Amnesia = loss of memory ("without memory") - Can be caused by: acute virus infection that affects the brain, Parkinson's disease, brain resection as treatment for epilepsy, physical accident, Korsakov syndrome, even psychological (psychogenic memory disorders)

Answer 183

- Breakthrough in understanding memory from memory loss - Had epileptic seizures after an accident, which became more severe with age (10 to 27) - Seizure originated in the region that included the amygdala, hippocampal formation, and associated subcortical structures, so Scoville removed them bilaterally - Scoville performed a bilateral medial temporal lobe resection - HM suffered from severe amnesia after his surgery (couldn't recall anything that had happened after the surgery; no explicit memory) - However, he still had an above average IQ - performed well on perceptual tests and could still recall events from his childhood - His performance on implicit memory tests was left intact

Answer 184

- Memory for new personal events - impaired - Memory for new facts - impaired - Anterograde amnesia: forgets everything new after a few minutes - Memory for new skills - intact But explicit memory of learning these skills is impaired Therefore, repeated items show a smaller improvement - Short-term memory - intact - Followed for 30 years by Dr Brenda Milner - Memory normal for motor learning (e.g. mirror-drawing), though no memory of ever having done task before

Answer 185

Medial temporal region - Hippocampus - Amygdala - Entorhinal cortex - Parahippocampal cortex - Perirhinal cortex Frontal cortex (dorsolateral and ventrolateral) Reciprocal connections between frontal and temporal brain regions

Answer 186

- Implicit memory intact/explicit memory impaired - Implicit memory impaired/explicit memory intact - Double dissociation is strong evidence of independent proceses

Answer 187

- Impaired implicit memory with intact explicit memory - Developed Parkinson's disease in his mid 70's and started to have memory problems at 78 years of age (damage to basal ganglia) - Impaired ability to perform tasks that he'd done all his life (e.g. turning off the radio) - Could still recall explicit events

Answer 188

- Basal ganglia - Ventral thalamus - Substantia nigra - Premotor cortex

Answer 189

- Separate systems to a larger extent, but the systems can interact (e.g. in implicit tasks, there is often some contribution of explicit memory) - Network of regions more closely associated with explicit memory and others more closely associated with implicit memory, but these can interact during certain tasks

Answer 190

- Term introduced by Pinel and Esquirol as describing general loss of function - Dementia - progressive, irreversible, results in death, memory loss and effects on language functioning - Is a neurological disorder caused by progressive cell death

Answer 191

Memory impairment and at least one of the following: - Aphasia - language impairments - Apraxia - motor memory impairments - Agnosia - sensory memory impairments - Abstract thinking/executive function - impairments Impaired semantic memory Intact episodic (autobiographical) memory Impairment in social behaviour Not explainable by another disorder (e.g. depression)

Answer 192

Language impairments

Answer 193

Motor memory impairments

Answer 194

Sensory memory impairments

Answer 195

Impairments

Answer 196

- Alzheimer's Disease - More than 65% of diagnoses

Answer 197

Dopaminergic cell loss

Answer 198

- Alois Alzheimer (1906) - Described a person (Auguste Deter) who suffered from senile dementia and brain atrophy

Answer 199

Early: - Needs reminders - Daily routines difficult - Concentration is difficult - Loss of recent memories Middle: - May need hands on care - May get lost easily - Changes in personality Late: - Sever confusion - Needs help for personal care - May not recognise self or family

Answer 200

- Difficulty learning or retaining new information (repeated conversations) - Information retrieval deficits (can't recall names) - Personal episodic memory impairment (misplacing items) - Declarative (semantic) memory (WHAT) more than procedural (implicit) memory (HOW)

Answer 201

- List-generation deficits (especially in Alzheimer's Disease) - Word-finding difficulties (naming problems) - Verbal fluency deficits - Less complex sentence structure - Relatively preserved auditory comprehension

Answer 202

- Visual recognition impairments - trouble recognising familiar faces - Spatial deficits - getting lost in familiar surroundings

Answer 203

- Planning, predicting, correlating, abstracting - Often the first impairment noticed in highly educated/intelligent people

Answer 204

- The entorhinal cortex (link between neocortex and hippocampus) May explain why memory problems occur early in the disease - Affected areas are the limbic cortex, inferior temporal cortex, and posterior parietal cortex - The primary sensory and motor areas are spared

Answer 205

- Today - almost 1 in 10 people are over 60 years old - By 2050 - 1 in 5 people will be over 60 - Cognitive impairments such as dementia will become more common

Answer 206

Explicit/declarative memory Implicit/non-declarative memory Within declarative - Semantic - Episodic Within non-declarative - Procedure memory (skills) - Priming - Conditioning Different memory types depend on different anatomical structures

Answer 207

- A person's knowledge about the world (facts, cognitive skills; e.g. non-verbal knowledge about gravity) - Highly organised (e.g. semantic networks - hierarchical networks, spreading activation model; scripts, schemas)

Answer 208

- Recollection of where and when events happened in one's own life (content and context) - Involves some degree of semantic memory, general world knowledge (e.g. what a holiday is)

Answer 209

- General knowledge store - Retrieval without conscious recollection of when/where learned - Not attached to a specific time or place - Knowledge of facts, words (e.g. what does the word "googled" mean, who is the prime minister) - Recognition of faces (e.g. recognising your mother's face)

Answer 210

- Attached to a specific time, tied to a specific episode (e.g. the first time you heard to word "googled", memory for your mother at a particular family gathering - Christmas Eve in 2014)

Answer 211

- At the time of learning and at the time of retrieval, the systems interact and are interdependent

Answer 212

- What was an episodic memory can become a semantic memory

Answer 213

Long-term memory leads into: - Explicit (declarative) memory - memory with conscious recall - Implicit (non-declarative) memory - memory without conscious recall Explicit (declarative) memory leads into: - Semantic memory - facts and general knowledge (e.g. bananas are yellow, 12 months in a year) - Episodic memory - personal experiences and events (e.g. your high graduation, the birth of your first child) Implicit (non-declarative) memory leads into: - Procedural memory - motor skills and habits (e.g. how to ride a bike, brush your teeth) - Classically conditioned memory - conditioned responses to conditioned stimuli (e.g. phobias, some aspects of prejudice)

Answer 214

- KC - Motorcycle accident - closed-head injury - Couldn't produce a single episode from his past that was distinct in time and place (Rosenbaum) - Episodic - photographs couldn't be related to life events - Semantic - people in photographs were identified - Retained his knowledge of how to play chess, but couldn't remember ever having played chess before

Answer 215

- Network of unitary nodes (no internal structure) and labelled links between them - Good for hierarchies - Properties are inherited (e.g. everything below animal breathes) - Predicts sentence verification times (more links to cross, more time)

Answer 216

Evidence: Task: present sentence - participants must respond true/false - A robin is a robin (fastest - no links) - A robin is a bird (faster - 1 link) - A robin is an animal (slower - 2 links) - A robin has wings (faster - wings at bird level) - A robin has lungs (slower - lungs at animal level) But: - A cow is a mammal (slower than) a cow in an animal (familiarity) - A robin is a bird (faster than) a penguin is a bird (typicality) -> Semantic memory organised on basis of semantic relatedness or semantic distance (instead of hierarchy) deals with this better Problem: Definition problem - Are definitions really as sharp as a network implies? - Necessary and sufficient conditions are the usual approach to sharp definitions - Well defined set of attributes; if all of them are present, we have an X (e.g. bachelor - never married, but old enough to be; male) - Problem: necessary and sufficient conditions can rarely be found for an adequate definition

Answer 217

Problem for learning: - How do children figure out what a game is if there is no definition, but the set is also not arbitrary (e.g. not everything is a game)? Problem for meaning: - How do I know what YOU mean by 'game'? What if YOU pick one way to make up the family and I pick a different way? Concepts are fuzzy

Answer 218

Broca's aphasia: - Comprehension is relatively preserved - Deficits in producing language Wernicke's aphasia - Comprehension generally impaired - Produce fluent but meaningless speech

Answer 219

Meaning integration: - Flat... - Flat beer, flat note, flat tire Syntactic (grammatical) integration: - Dog, chase, cat, etc.

Answer 220

- Memory - storing linguistic information about single words - Integration - integrating or binding pieces of information into unfolding representation of preceding context

Answer 221

- Over 50% (most of whom are naturalistic child bilinguals)

Answer 222

- 1 in 5 (21%)

Answer 223

- An individual who has the mental representation (knowledge) of more than one language for the purposes of understanding and/or speaking these languages

Answer 224

- Those that have 2 native languages - Sometimes called 2L1ers or simultaneous bilinguals - Some bilinguals are more proficient in the L2 that their L1 - Some bilinguals become bilingual later in life; after the age of 4, a person is considered a second language learner

Answer 225

- Age of exposure to L1 and L2, context of language acquisition, years of education in L1/L2

Answer 226

- The process of the language acquisition, language restructuring (access to L1/L2 due to context)

Answer 227

-Is L1/L2 spoken at home, work, school? Daily life use of L1/L2 (watch tv, read a book, listening to the radio)

Answer 228

- L1/L2 skills in listening, reading, writing and speaking (proficiency)

Answer 229

- Percentage of L1/L2 use in a monolingual and bilingual context (language switching experience)

Answer 230

- Age, socio-economic and educational status, etc.

Answer 231

- Simultaneous - both languages are acquired at the same time - Sequential acquisition - the second language is learned after a first language

Answer 232

- How often and in what contexts do you use the two languages - "Use it or lose it" - language attrition

Answer 233

- Native bilingualism - growing up in a two-language environment - Immersion - schooling provided in a non-native language - Submersion - one learner surrounded by non-native speakers Also, on a different note: - Language dominance effects - relative fluency of L1 and L2 may impact processing

Answer 234

- No! - Dual language activation found in listening, speaking and reading tasks, even in single language tasks where only one language is used

Answer 235

Dog -> Pear - Dog: semantically related to Spanish word 'perro' - Pear: phonologically related to 'perro'

Answer 236

- Ignore irrelevant information - Resolve conflict among competing alternatives - Minimise costs associated with task switching - Measurable increase in creativity areas of the brain

Answer 237

- Last area of brain (frontal lobes) to mature - Last cognitive skills to develop in childhood; first to decline with ageing - Children typically develop control over attention and inhibition at about 5 years - Experience in managing two languages may promote this development

Answer 238

- Lexical retrieval - Boston Picture naming and Letter/Category fluency tasks - Name words that begin with "F" - Name words in the category "Animals" - Bilinguals consistently slower in retrieving word/fluency

Answer 239

- Research suggests bilingualism delays age at onset of dementia - Bialystok - bilingualism delays the onset of Alzheimer's-type dementia by four years - Alladi - bilingualism delays the onset of Alzheimer's-type dementia by 4.5 - 5 years - Bilingualism may provide protection to the brain

Answer 240

- Yes! - Parallel activity of the two languages is thought to produce competition - Skilled bilinguals rarely make the error of speaking the wrong language, yet they often code switch with other similar bilinguals in the middle of a sentence, suggesting that they possess an exquisite mechanism of cognitive control

Answer 241

Two general alternatives: 1. Bilinguals develop skill in selectively attending to the critical information that signals language status 2. Bilinguals learn to inhibit irrelevant information once it has been activated - Either of these mechanisms might confer positive cognitive consequences

Answer 242

The brain's executive functions: - Activation - organising, prioritising, getting to work - Focus - tuning in, sustaining focus, shifting attention - Effort - regulating alertness, sustaining effort, adjusting processing speed - Emotions - managing frustration, modulating emotions - Memory - holding on and working with information, retrieving memories - Action - monitoring and regulating one's actions

Answer 243

- Parallel activation of both languages - Constant interference - Need to manage and monitor thw two language systems - Exercising language control improves performance in non-verbal control

Answer 244

- Shows an executive functions advantage - Bilinguals have been found to have a reduced congruency effect - However, no evidence that bimodal bilinguals are better at tasks requiring inhibition

Answer 245

- Bilinguals activated a lesser portion of the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) (a region involved in conflict monitoring) that monolinguals to complete a flanker task

Answer 246

- Unimodal bilinguals - two spoken languages One linguistic output channel: vocal articulation - Bimodal bilinguals - a signed and a spoken language Two linguistic output channels: vocal and manual articulation

Answer 247

- 9 out of 13 - Bimodal bilinguals produce ASL signs when talking to a non-signer - Bilinguals produced an average of 4 signs - Conclusion for bimodal bilinguals : inhibition is less necessary when the languages don't compete for the articulators

Answer 248

- Bilingualism is a pervasive and multidimensional experience that includes functional usage (how much) and proficiecy (how well) - Bilingual adaptations - stem from controlling two different (spoken) languages in mind - The same control may not be needed for sign and spoken language bilinguals (adaptations in both brain and in cognitive functions; the cognitive consequences of bilingualism seem positive but limited to non-verbal tasks) - Neural and cognitive adaptations to bilingualism (especially neural) likely calibrated to the extent/nature of experience

Answer 249

- More time spent = better retention - Generally true, but you can get 'better value for time spent' with 10 tips for learning

Answer 250

1. Distributed practice 2. Value of simple repetition 3. Importance of testing and feedback 4. Motivation 5. Arousal 6. Meaningfulness 7. Dual (re)coding 8. Study with a friend 9. Levels of Processing 10. Encoding Specificity Principle

Answer 251

- "Little and often" (spaced distributed learning, breaks between study sessions) is better than "cramming" (massed learning) everything in one go - Rest/sleep

Answer 252

- Rehearsal/maintenance rehearsal - Low-level, mechanical process of recycling, little effort, no interest in "meaning"

Answer 253

- Better to have a test trial than extra learning trial - Generation effect - better memory if you came up with the answer yourself - Feedback necessary so (self-generated) errors don't persist

Answer 254

- Goran-Nilsson - pp's put in either 'no pressure' group, 'no motivation during studying; at time of recall, substantial cash prize offered for best learner' group, 'cash prize mentioned before learning' group - Found no differences between the groups - Intention to memorise contributed little, focus on understanding the material - Effect is indirect, affects time and attention spent on learning

Answer 255

- Yerkes-Dodson law - But: implicit learning depends less on arousal (even some learning while under anaesthesia; Andrade)

Answer 256

- Material easier to learn if meaningful and can be related to what is already known - Organisation principle - memory as function of how things/events are related to each other

Answer 257

- Verbal information stored in a "symbolic" verbal code - Visual information represented in an "analogue" mental image - Better retention if something is represented in both codes: enhanced memory for concrete (versus abstract) words; better memory if word is paired with a (real or imagined) visual image

Answer 258

- Explain things to each other (active role) - Listen to new insights: new connections between ideas -> new retrieval paths -> easier to recall

Answer 259

- Amount of information in LTM depends on how "deeply" it's processed during learning - Continuum from "shallow" (perceptual) to "deep" (meaningful" processing - Level or depth of processing affects memorability - Shallow processing produces fragile memory traces which are susceptible to rapid forgetting - Deeper processing (meaning, understanding) produces more elaborate, longer lasting, and stronger memory traces Elaborative rehearsal (Type II rehearsal): - Better when context is elaborate (more memorable) - "She cooked the ___" (is "chicken" a good completion?) - "The great bird swooped down and carried off the struggling ___" (is "chicken" a good completion?) - Related to number of connections with existing knowledge Elaboration Principle: - The more you can connect with existing knowledge, the better your memory

Answer 260

Strengths: - Places emphasis on memory processes rather than memory structures - True in general that elaborative processing leads to better retention Weaknesses: - Transfer-appropriate processing Morris - pick out the words that rhyme with the words you studied, better after sound-based task (in general: if study procedures match test requirements, you'll go better) - LoP pattern in implicit memory tests? Pattern quite clear in explicit memory tests, much less so in implicit memory tests (e.g. word fragment test)

Answer 261

- Relation between acquisition and retrieval - Each item is encoded with respect to the context in which it's studied - Unique trace with information from target AND context - Better retrieval when cue information (test) matches the trace of the item-in-context (learning)

Answer 262

Context-dependent memory: - Better memory when more accidental features match between encoding and retrieval - 4 subtypes: ~ External, spatio-temporal environment ~ State-dependent (physiological) ~ Mood-dependent ~ Cognitive context-dependent Environmental context-dependent memory: - Influence of external factors - Godden & Baddeley - scuba divers State-dependent memory: - Influence of internal environment (drugs, alcohol, etc.) - Goodwin - recall errors after drinking vodka or placebo - Important for context/state-dependent memory: only found in recall tasks, not in recognition tasks Mood-dependent memory: - Memory for emotionally non-neutral material (positive or negative) - Better if learned in congruent mood - Kenealy - Eich - pleasant or unpleasant mood; merry/melancholy music Cognitive context-dependent memory: - Internal context also includes ideas, thoughts, convictions, etc. one had during encoding - e.g. language context - Marian & Fausey - bilinguals better at remembering information (e.g. chemistry) if tested in same language as when information was acquired - Extra challenges when studying in foreign language

Answer 263

- No! - LTM is highly organised and much of the material that we can't retrieve has been mislaid, not lost - Thus, the challenge with LTM is getting the appropriate retrieval key to access information stored there

Answer 264

The Science of Successful Learning: 1. Embrace difficulties 2. Avoid illusions of knowing 3. To learn, retrieve 4. Space it out, mix it up 5. Move beyond learning styles Make it Stick 6. Increase your abilities 7. Elaborate 8. Generate 9. Reflect 10. Calibrate