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Psychology - Concepts and Theories > Cognitive Psychology > Flashcards

Cognitive Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the three stages of consciousness?

A

wakefulness - awareness of ourselves, the world and our interactions with the world

Rapid Eye Movement (R.E.M.) sleep – vivid dreams and loose awareness of the world.

Non-R.E.M. sleep – minimal awareness or ourselves and the world

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2
Q

what are some fuzzy boundaries within states of consciousness?

A

There are circumstances where our ‘standard’ wakeful consciousness is altered (e.g.drugs, meditation and hypnotism)

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3
Q

what is walking corpse syndrome?

A

Graham’s believed that he was dead.A case study brain imaging showed that his brain metabolism was significantly lower and more widespread than what is normally observed in patients with major depression.

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4
Q

what is the mirror mark test?

A

This is a test often used to show that an organism has a concept of self.Evidence supports the ability to do the test in the apes (e.g. chimpanzees).There is mixed evidence in relation to other animals (e.g. dolphins and elephants).

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5
Q

what is the judgement of agency?

A

The ability to judge agency is also considered a way of measuring if an organism has a concept of self.

Recent findings suggest that chimpanzees show this ability Kaneko & Tomonagu, 2011).

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6
Q

what are the two principles of the consciousness equation?

A

That conscious things hold very rich information.

That this information is highly integrated.

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7
Q

what is used to research conciousness?

A

Introspective methods have traditionally been used to investigate consciousness.

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8
Q

what are the qualities of the introspective method?

A
  1. Inherently subjective – as it is about our awareness of ourselves and the environment.
  2. Personal/private – it is not currently possible to experience someone else’s consciousness.
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9
Q

what are the limitations of the introspective method?

A

1 – Inverted spectrum problem.

2 – Limitations of vocabulary

3 – Cognitive unconscious.

4 – Mistaken introspections.

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10
Q

what is the inverted spectrum problem?

A

How do we know that when I say a postbox is red; that inside your head you are having a similar experience?

You could be experiencing what I would call ‘violet’ but that you have learnt to call red.

It could be that you have an inverted spectrum, relative to me, but neither of us would know.

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11
Q

what are the limitations of vocabulary when using the introspection method?

A

Think about or write down how you would describe the following:
1 – A friend.
2 – The taste of your favourite food.
3 – Your favourite place.
4 – Explain how to ride a bike/swim/play a sport.
5 – Explain how you do a hobby (e.g. reading, drawing, etc.).

How easy was it to describe these things? Did you feel that you were able to get across the whole of what you were describing?Would it be easier for the other person to experience it for themselves?

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12
Q

what are the limitations of vocabulary when using the introspection method?

A
  • Think about or write down how you would describe the following:
    The taste of your favourite food.
    Your favourite place.
    Explain how to ride a bike/swim/play a sport.
    Explain how you do a hobby (e.g. reading, drawing, etc.).

How easy was it to describe these things? Did you feel that you were able to get across the whole of what you were describing?Would it be easier for the other person to experience it for themselves?

  • One person could describe a splinter in their finger as “excruciating painful” and another person as “sore”.

Does this mean that they experienced different levels of pain? Or could it mean that they mean different level of pain using those words?Can we tell the difference?

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13
Q

what is cognitive unconciousness?

A

There are a number of events that go on in our mind that we are not aware of (cognitive unconscious).

Due to this, we are notable to study them byself report.

  • Individuals with brain damage can give us some insights into the cognitive unconscious.
  • Blindsight – where an individual with visual cortex brain damage is able to visually relate to objects they report they are unable to see
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14
Q

who was brian thomas?

A

Brian Thomas and his wife Christine were holidaying in a camper van.

In the night ‘boy racers’ came making lots of noise.In his sleep Brian believed someone was in the campervan attacking his wife.

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15
Q

what is a crime in the UK

A

crime - mens rea (guilty mind) + actus reus (guilty act)

In the U.K. there is the legal defence of ‘automatism’. There are two types: ‘insane’ - and ‘non-insane’

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16
Q

what stage of sleep was brian thomas in?

A

3/4

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17
Q

what is an EEG?

A

An EEG measures voltage changes that occurring due to neuron activity.

EEG’s have good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution.

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18
Q

what is an EEG?

A

An EEG measures voltage changes that occurring due to neuron activity.

EEG’s have good temporal resolution but poor spatial resolution.

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19
Q

what is the beta and alpha rhythm?

A

Beta rhythm – The voltage is lower and the frequency is higher (14-35 Hz)

Alpha rhythm – Regular waxing and waning of electrical activity (8-13 cycles per second Hz).

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20
Q

what are the four stages of non-REM sleep?

A

stage 1 - theta waves
stage 2 - sleep spindle and K complex
- theta waves initially and then later delta waves
stage 3 - delta waves
stage 4 - delta waves

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21
Q

what are the qualities of REM sleep?

A
  1. Increase in heart rate.
  2. Increase in respiration.
  3. Eyes jitter back and forth.
  4. High-frequency EEG activity (similar to being awake).
  5. Least sensitive to external stimulation.
  6. Muscles usually not functioning normally; sleep paralysis.
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22
Q

what is dreaming related to?

A

There is a strong association between REM sleep and dreams that are negative and are of a vivid nature.

REM dreams seem to take approximately the same timeline as the real world (if you recall five minutes of dreamtime; it relates to five minutes of REM sleep).

Dreams often include things that are occupying our current life (worries, objects or events).

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23
Q

what is sleep paralysis?

A

Sleep Paralysis occurs when there is an overlap between wakefulness and R.E.M. sleep.

Like R.E.M. sleep the individual is paralysed,except their eyes. The experiences and hallucinations seem real.

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24
Q

did brian thomas have a guilty mind?

A

Frontal cortex ‘off’; no ‘thinking’ or planning

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25
Q

is sleepwalking a disease of the mind?

A

In the legal sense it may be; psychologically speaking there is debate

26
Q

what are the five key altered states of conciousness?

A
  1. Sleep.
  2. Drugs.
  3. Hypnosis.
  4. Religious practises.
  5. Anaesthesia
27
Q

what is anaesthesia?

A
  • This has been referred to as the state of “controlled unconsciousness”.
  • The precise mechanisms of general anaesthesia is unclear.
  • The general brain metabolism of an individual under anaesthesia is reduced by approximately 50%.
28
Q

what are the three main classes of drugs?

A
  • The three main classes of drugs are:
  • Depressants
  • Stimulants
  • Hallucinogens
29
Q

what are depressant substances?

A

They slow (depress) the Central Nervous System (CNS).

This has an effect on behaviours and cognitive process. For example reduced reaction times and incorrect perceptions of the world.

30
Q

what are stimulating substances?

A

They speed up (stimulate) the Central Nervous System (CNS).

This has an effect on behaviours and cognitive processes. For example increased concentration and attention.

The most commonly used are: Cocaine,Amphetamines, Caffeine, and Nicotine

31
Q

what are hallucinogens?

A

Drugs in this category include LSD and psilocybin. They cause powerful changes in sensory perceptions (‘trips’).

Psilocybin has been shown to elicit self-reported spiritual experiences

32
Q

what are the religious states which impact consciousness?

A

Altered states related to religion vary considerably.
1. Speaking in tongues.
2. Periods of fasting.
3. Quiet contemplation.

33
Q

how can meditation impact consciousness?

A

Meditation is often practiced in Asian religions (e.g. Hinduism, Taoism, and Buddhism).

It is characterised by an individual being relaxed and focusing upon a specific stimuli (e.g. a chant, candle or prayer mandala).

Often the individual meditating focuses on their internal thoughts; ignoring most external stimuli

34
Q

what are the positive aspects of meditation?

A

Meditation effects both mind and body:
1. Lowers blood pressure.
2. Enhances the immune response.
3. Reduces levels of stress hormones (e.g., cortisol).
4. Alters brain activity

35
Q

what is hypnosis?

A
  • Hypnosis is a highly relaxed state where an individualis suggestable. Often actions and thoughts seem to be happening to them, rather than being voluntary

.* Hypnotists aim to enable this state, in different ways depending upon their profession.

36
Q

what are the shared characteristic of meditation and hypnosis?

A
  1. Relaxed state.
  2. Focus on a specific stimulus.
  3. Highly alert to ideas
37
Q

what are the three categories of mental representation?

A
  1. Objects or events that exist but are currently notpresent.
  2. Objects or events that don’t exist.
  3. Mental ideas about a present object or currently occurring event.
38
Q

what is the propositional and pictorial debate?

A
  • Are imagines in our mind understood as pictures or language (i.e., like a computer)?
  • Pictorial representations: mental representations are picture-like.
  • Propositional representation: mental representations are not pictures but translated into language
39
Q

what are mental representations?

A

CONCLUSION: MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS ARE LIKE PICTURES BUT NOT EXACTLY

  • Mental representations and perception use the same brain regions
40
Q

what are the language systems in humans?

A

Specific brain regions dedicated to comprehending and producing language
- broncas area and wernickles area

41
Q

example of language in dolphins?

A
  • A researcher points to the crescent, to indicate they want the scarf.
  • The dolphin goes and gets the scarf from the bottom of the sea,and brings it back to the researcher
42
Q

who was koko the gorilla?

A
  • Vocabulary of over 1000s words* Measured IQ in the 70-90 range
  • Evidence of limited creative language production:
  • E.g., primate (Washoe) upon seeing a swan for the first time signed ‘water’ and ‘bird
43
Q

who was alex the grey parrot?

A
  • Identify more than 50 objects
  • 100 word vocabulary
  • Counting (how many greenboxes?)
  • Creativity or operant conditioning?
44
Q

what is symbolic information organisation?

A

Anderson (1993; 1996) proposes that symbolic information is organised as nodes with associative links

45
Q

what is directed thinking?

A

t is possible to divide our thought processes into fourbroad types (based on the thinking goal):
1. Judgement.
2. Reasoning.
3. Decision making.
4. Problem solving

46
Q

what is judgement?

A

Judgement is where we intend to use evidence to make a judgement about something that goes beyond the evidence (extrapolation).

small amount of evidence + thinking –> judgement

47
Q

how does environment impact judgement?

A

Schnall (2008) had participants perform moral judgements in an environment with a bad smell and disgusting room.

The disgusting environment increased the severity of moral judgement

Current research suggest that a number of surprising factors can influence our judgements(e.g. feelings of disgust at bad smells).

48
Q

what are judgement heuristics?

A

A heuristic is a fast and frugal solution to a problem derived form previous experience

Heuristics are often characterised as enabling a faster judgement to be made,but they are also imperfect

49
Q

what is the recognition heuristic?

A

Things are perceived as being higher in value based on whether they are recognized or not.
The basis of branding – it’s not just a matter of selling a product, but increase familiarity

50
Q

what is the representative heuristic?

A

The representativeness heuristic is a mental shortcut that we use when estimating probabilities. When we’re trying to assess how likely a certain event is, we often make our decision by assessing how similar it is to an existing mental prototype.

51
Q

what is the dual process theory?

A

Dual processing theory suggests that there are two systems:
Type 1 – fast and frugal (e.g., heuristics).
Type 2 – slow and deliberate (e.g., analytical thinking).

52
Q

what factors influence which dual processing system is used?

A

There are a number of factors that influence the choice of system:
1. If tired or short of time – System 1.
2. If presented with probabilities – System 1
3. If presented with frequencies – System 2
4. Evidence is quantifiable – System 2
5. Training in statistics – System 2?

53
Q

what is the definition of reasoning?

A

Reasoning is thinking in which logical processes of an inductive or deductive character are used to draw conclusions from facts or premises

Proper reasoning is valid and sound

54
Q

what is confirmation bias?

A

Confirmation bias is the tendency to gather evidence that confirms preexisting expectations, typically by emphasizing or pursuing supporting evidence while dismissing or failing to seek contradictory evidence.

55
Q

what is decision making?

A

Decision making is the cognitive process resulting in a belief or course of action among several possible alternative options.

There are two key considerations:
1. Choose the most desirable outcome.
2. Consider the risks

56
Q

what is the framing effect?

A

A cognitive bias where people decide an option based on whether the options are presented with positive or negative connotations

57
Q

Kahneman and tversky (1984)

A

Imagine that the United Kingdom is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed. Assume that the exact scientific estimate of the consequences of the two programs is as follows:

  • If Program A is adopted, 400 people will die.
  • If Program B is adopted, there’s a one-third probability that nobody will die and a two-thirds probability that 600 people will die.
58
Q

what is loss aversion?

A
  • Loss aversion is the cognitive bias to prefer avoiding losing vs.acquiring equivalent gains
59
Q

what is cognitive dissonance?

A
  • Cognitive dissonance is a mental conflict that occurs when your beliefs don’t line up with your decisions
  • Leads to ego-perceiving behaviours:self-deception, avoidance
60
Q

what is problem solving?

A

Problem solving is the process by which individuals attempt to overcome difficulties, achieve plans that move them from a start situation to a desired goal or reach conclusions through the use of higher mental functions, such as reasoning and creative thinking

Key qualities:
1. Initial state.
2. Goal state.
3. A path (strategy) to connect the two

61
Q

what is the law of effect?

A

The law of effect: if a response (R) produces a satisfying state, then an association is formed between R and the stimulus (S) at the time the R was made.

Central to the behaviourist perspective- conscious thought is an epiphemenon: e.g., If eating McDonald’s leads to good feels, associates stimulus evokes good feels

Psychology - Concepts and Theories (4 decks)

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