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Cognitive Psychology Flashcards

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1
Q

Cognition

A

The mental action or process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses.

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2
Q

Memory

A

The faculty of encoding, storing, and retrieving information

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3
Q

Multi-store model

A

The multi-store model is an explanation of memory proposed by Atkinson and Shiffrin which assumes there are three unitary (separate) memory stores (sensory, short-term, long-term), and that information is transferred between these stores in a linear sequence.

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4
Q

Sensory memory store

A

In the sensory memory store, information arrives from the 5 senses such as sight (visual information), sounds and touch. The sensory memory store has a large capacity but a very brief duration, it can encode information from any of the senses and most of the information is lost through decay. It is the first stage of the multi store memory model.

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5
Q

Long term memory

A

Long-term memory refers to unlimited storage information to be maintained for long periods, even for life. There are two types of long-term memory: explicit memory and implicit memory. It is the third stage of the multi-store memory model.

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6
Q

Short term memory

A

Short-term memory (STM) is the second stage of the multi-store memory model. The duration of STM seems to be between 15 and 30 seconds, and the capacity about 7 items.

Short term memory has three key aspects:
1. limited capacity (only about 7 items can be stored at a time)

  1. limited duration (storage is very fragile and information can be lost with distraction or passage of time)
  2. encoding (primarily acoustic, even translating visual information into sounds).
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7
Q

Memory span

A

Memory span refers to the amount of items, e.g. numbers, letters, or words, that a person has the ability to remember.

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8
Q

Serial position effect

A

The serial position effect is the psychological tendency to remember the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle. The serial position effect is a form of cognitive bias, and it includes both the primacy effect and the recency effect.

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9
Q

Primacy effect

A

The tendency to recall information presented at the start of a list better than information at the middle or end.

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10
Q

Recency effect

A

The recency effect is a cognitive bias in which those items, ideas, or arguments that came last are remembered more clearly than those that came first.

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11
Q

Amnesia

A

The loss of memories, such as facts, information and experiences.

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12
Q

Working memory

A

Working memory is the small amount of information that can be held in mind and used in the execution of cognitive tasks. It facilitates planning, comprehension, reasoning, and problem-solving.

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13
Q

Central executive

A

A flexible system responsible for the control and regulation of cognitive processes. It directs focus and targets information, making working memory and long-term memory work together.

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14
Q

Phonological loop

A

Mental representations of sounds

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15
Q

Visuospacial sketchpad

A

Mental representations of visual & spatial info

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16
Q

Episodic buffer

A

Temporary storage space for information

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17
Q

Implicit memory

A

Can influence thought / behaviour without conscious recollection

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18
Q

Explicit knowledge

A

Can be explicitly retrieved, reflected on consciously, “declared” in words

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19
Q

Semantic memory

A

A subtype of explicit knowledge - generic memories and knowledge of the world, not associated with particular times and places, what you know

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20
Q

Episodic memory

A

Subtype of explicit memory, personal memories of specific past experiences, associated with particular times and places, what you learn / remember

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21
Q

Procedural memory

A

Subtype of implicit memory, motor and cognitive skills e.g., knowing how to ride a bike

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22
Q

Priming

A

Subtype of implicit memory, enhanced identification of objects or words

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23
Q

Encoding

A

Way in which events etc. come to be represented in memory

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24
Q

Storage

A

Maintaining information over time in memory

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25
Q

Retrieval

A

Recovering or extracting information from memory

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26
Q

Absentmindedness

A

Failing to pay attention, which results in poorer encoding

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27
Q

Rehearsal

A

Cognitive process in which information is repeated over and over as a possible way of learning and remembering it.

28
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

Repeating items over and over to maintain them in short-term memory

29
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

An encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by linking new information to what one already knows. For instance, when trying to remember that someone is named George, one might think of five other things one knows about people named George.

30
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

An encoding strategy to facilitate the formation of memory by linking new information to what one already knows. For instance, when trying to remember that someone is named George, one might think of five other things one knows about people named George.

31
Q

Levels of processing

A

The levels of processing model (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last.

32
Q

Levels of processing

A

The levels of processing model (Craik & Lockhart, 1972) focuses on the depth of processing involved in memory, and predicts the deeper information is processed, the longer a memory trace will last.

33
Q

Spacing

A

The spacing effect is the observation that repetitions spaced in time tend to produce stronger memories than repetitions massed closer together in time.

34
Q

Consolidation

A

Process which fixes information into long term memory

35
Q

Transience

A

The decreasing accessibility of memory over time - information lost FROM memory

36
Q

Interference

A

Information lost IN memory - where some memories interfere with the retrieval of other memories

37
Q

Blocking

A

Failures to express knowledge or skill because of failures of learning or memory

38
Q

Cue-dependent forgetting

A

The failure to recall information without memory cues

39
Q

Context-dependent memory

A

Context-dependent memory refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when contextual cues relating to the environment are the same during encoding and retrieval.

40
Q

State-dependent memory

A

State-dependent memory refers to improved recall of specific episodes or information when cues relating to emotional and physical state are the same during encoding and retrieval.

41
Q

Encoding Specificity Principle

A

The encoding specificity principle shows that memories are linked to the context in which they are created. It states that it’s easier to recall information when you are in the same context in which you memorized or studied it.

42
Q

Reconstruction vs reproduction in memory

A

Reproductive memory stores encoded information to be retrieved at a later time. Reconstructive memory uses stored information to construct a belief about a past experience.

43
Q

Schemas (schemata)

A

Schemas are cognitive frameworks that help us to organise and interpret information. They are developed through experience and can affect our cognitive processing.

44
Q

Source confusion

A

Source confusion, also know as source misattribution or unconscious transference, is a type of memory error. It occurs when someone does not remember where certain memories come from.

45
Q

Cryptomnesia

A

An implicit memory phenomenon in which people mistakenly believe that a current thought or idea is a product of their own creation when, in fact, they have encountered it previously and then forgotten it.

46
Q

False memories

A

False memory refers to cases in which people remember events differently from the way they happened or, in the most dramatic case, remember events that never happened at all.

47
Q

DRM paradigm

A

a procedure in cognitive psychology used to study false memory in humans. This typically involves the oral presentation of a list of related words (e.g., bed, rest, awake, tired, dream) and then requires the subject to remember as many words from the list as possible. Typical results show that subjects recall a related but absent word (e.g., sleep), known as a ‘lure’, with the same frequency as other presented words.[1] When asked about their experience after the test, about half of all participants report that they are sure that they remember hearing the lure, indicating a false memory – a memory for an event that never occurred.

48
Q

Post-event information

A

Post-event information is information received and processed following an event (such as witnessing a crime or a car accident) that has the potential of altering memory of the actual events.

49
Q

Reconsolidation

A

Reconsolidation refers to the retrieval of memories in response to a memory trace. This is how and why we can recover memories from long ago or about topics that you haven’t thought about in a long time. As an example, a child learns a language while growing up.

50
Q

Habituation

A

Decline in an organism’s response to a stimulus

51
Q

Classical conditioning

A

When a stimulus evokes a response because of being paired with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response

52
Q

Unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response

A

Unconditioned stimulus (US) - naturally occurring stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response.
Unconditioned response (UR) - naturally occurring response.
E.g., Food (UR) elicits saliva (US), a loud noise (UR) elicits a startle (US)

53
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

A stimulus that is originally neutral but can be conditioned into producing a response by pairing with an unconditioned stimulus

54
Q

Conditioned response

A

A response to a conditioned stimulus produced by pairing it with an unconditioned stimulus

55
Q

Homeostasis

A

an organism’s tendency to maintain stability or equilibrium through various behavioral processes. E.g., a drug user will receive increased dopamine when taking a drug, so their body will adjust to maintain stability - their mood will decrease shortly before taking the drug so the increase in dopamine puts them in a stable state instead of one of increased happiness. This means that if they’re shown the drug but not allowed to take it, their mood will decrease, mouth will dry, they may get a headache, etc.

55
Q

Homeostasis

A

an organism’s tendency to maintain stability or equilibrium through various behavioral processes. E.g., a drug user will receive increased dopamine when taking a drug, so their body will adjust to maintain stability - their mood will decrease shortly before taking the drug so the increase in dopamine puts them in a stable state instead of one of increased happiness. This means that if they’re shown the drug but not allowed to take it, their mood will decrease, mouth will dry, they may get a headache, etc.

56
Q

Extinction

A

A toddler previously learned that throwing a tantrum at the grocery store will get him candies. When Mom stops giving in to those fits, the child throws fewer and fewer tantrums and stops altogether eventually. The learned tantrums have been extinct.

57
Q

Second-order conditioning

A

a phenomenon whereby a conditioned stimulus (CS) acquires the ability to elicit a conditioned response (CR) without ever being directly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (US).

58
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

the reemergence of conditioned responding to an extinguished conditioned stimulus (CS) with the passage of time since extinction.

59
Q

Excicatory connection

A

a synapse in which an action potential in a presynaptic neuron increases the probability of an action potential occurring in a postsynaptic cell.

60
Q

Generalisation gradient

A

a graph marking the similarity or difference between two stimuli versus the similarity or difference in their elicited responses.

61
Q

Backward pairing

A

a behaviour conditioning method in which the unconditioned stimulus (US) is presented before a neutral stimulus (NS). This is a mostly ineffective method of conditioning because it doesn’t allow for a clear association between the US and the NS.

62
Q

Simultaneous pairing

A

a classical conditioning technique in which the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus are presented at the same time.

63
Q

Forward pairing

A

the pairing of two stimuli such that the conditioned stimulus is presented before the unconditioned stimulus.

64
Q

Contingency

A

either a reinforcement or punishment that occurs after a behaviour has been expressed by an individual or group.

65
Q

One-trial learning

A

As its name suggests, the theory of one trial learning states that learning takes place in a single pairing of a response and stimulus and is not strengthened over time by repeated exposure to a stimulus.

66
Q

Taste aversion

A

a learned association between the taste of a particular food and illness such that the food is considered to be the cause of the illness.

Psychology (3 decks)

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