COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY Flashcards
1
Q
is a system that creates representations of the world so that we can act within it to achieve our goals.
A
mind
2
Q
Study of mental processes, which includes determining the characteristics and properties of the mind and how it operates
A
COGNITIVE
PSYCHOLOGY
3
Q
Not possible for the mind
to study itself
• The properties of the mind
cannot be measured
A
1800s ideas about the
mind
4
Q
A Dutch physiologist who
performed one of the first
cognitive psychology
experiments in (1868)
A
FRANCISCUS DONDERS
5
Q
When was the term Cognitive
Psychology coined
A
1967
6
Q
How long it takes for a
person to make a decision
which was determined by
measuring reaction time
A
Donders’ Pioneering
Experiment
7
Q
participants push a button
as rapidly as possible
when a light goes on
A
simple
reaction time
8
Q
– left button
when the left light goes on,
right button when the right light
goes on
A
choice
reaction time
9
Q
the time between the presentation of the
stimulus and the behavioral response
A
Reaction Time
10
Q
founded the first laboratory of scientific psychology at the The University of Leipzig in Germany
A
Wundt’s Psychology
11
Q
our overall experience is determined by combining basic elements of experience called sensations.
A
Structuralism:
12
Q
basic
elements of experience
called
A
sensations
13
Q
trained participants described
their experiences and
thought processes in
response to stimuli
A
Analytic Introspection:
14
Q
German psychologist, University of Berlin • he used another approach to measure the properties of the mind – nature of memory and forgetting (how info learned is lost over time)
A
Ebbinghaus
15
Q
Used himself as a participant and repeated lists of 13 nonsense syllables (to not be influenced by the meaning of a word) to himself one at a time at a constant rate
A
Ebbinghaus’s Memory
Experiment
16
Q
original time to
learn the list – time to relearn
the list after the delay
A
• Savings
17
Q
shows that memory drops rapidly for the first 2 days after the initial learning and then levels off
A
Savings Curve:
18
Q
American psychologist • Taught Harvard’s first psychology course and made significant observations about the mind in his textbook Principles of Psychology (1890)
A
William James
19
Q
Dissatisfaction with Analytic Introspection • Produced extremely variable results from person to person • Results were difficult to verify because they were interpreted in terms of invisible inner mental processes
A
Watson
20
Q
Watson and Rosalie Rayner
subjected a 9-month old boy
to a loud noise every time a
rat came close to the child
A
Little Albert experiment
21
Q
Goal was to replace the mind
as a topic of study in
psychology with the study of
directly observable behavior
A
Watson Founds
Behaviorism
22
Q
how pairing
one stimulus causes
changes in the response to
the neutral stimulus
A
classical
conditioning
23
Q
OC focused on how behavior is strengthened by the presentation of positive reinforcers • Focused solely on determining how behavior was controlled by stimuli (SR relationship)
A
Skinner’s Operant
Conditioning
24
Q
Called himself a behaviorist because his focus was on measuring behavior • One of the early cognitive psychologists – used behavior to infer mental processes
A
Edward Chace Tolman
25
conception within the rat’s mind of the
maze’s layout
• “cognitive” violated the behaviorist’s idea that internal
processes were not acceptable topics to study
Cognitive map
26
Transpired about a decade
after Tolman introduced the
idea of cognitive maps
Resurgence of the mind
27
children learn language
| through operant conditioning
• Skinner’s Verbal Behavior:
28
children imitate speech they
hear and repeat correct
speech because it is
rewarded
Skinner’s Verbal Behavior:
29
```
a linguist
from Massachusetts Institute of
Technology | wrote a scathing
review of Skinner’s book
pointing out that children say
many sentences that have
never been rewarded by
parents
```
Noam Chomsky
30
```
Chomsky’s idea that language
is a product of the way the mind
is constructed led psychologists
to realize that it is necessary to
measure observable behavior
and at the same time consider
what this behavior tells us
about how the mind works.
```
Resurgence of the mind
31
```
A shift in psychology from the
behaviorist’s focus on stimulusresponse relationships to an
approach that emphasized the
understanding of the operation
of the mind
```
Cognitive Revolution1950s
32
a
shift from one paradigm to
another
Scientific Revolution
33
a system of ideas
that dominate science at a
particular time
• Paradigm
34
```
Introduction of a new
technology that suggested a
new way of describing the
operation of the mind –
digital computer – as one of
the events that led to a new
way of studying psychology
```
• Paradigmand Paradigm
| Shifts
35
```
traces sequences of
mental operations involved in
cognition (info > input
processor > stored in a memory
unit > processed by an
arithmetic unit > output
```
• Information-processing
| approach
36
```
presented
participants with two auditory
messages, one to the left ear
and one to the right ear, and
told them to focus their
attention on one of the
messages and ignore the other
```
Flow Diagrams for the Mind
• British psychologist Colin
Cherry (1953):
37
sounds of both the
attended and unattended
messages
Input:
38
lets through the attended
message and filters out the
unattended message
Filter:
39
records the
information that gets through
the filter
Detector
40
```
The shift from Skinner’s
Behaviorism to the cognitive
approach occurred over a
period of time.
• Take into account the
conference that spanned 10
weeks on artificial intelligence –
Herb Simon & Alan Newell
```
The Cognitive “Revolution”
| Took a While
41
```
published a
textbook with the title Cognitive
Psychology which coined the
term cognitive psychology and
emphasized the informationprocessing approach to study
the mind
```
Ulrich Neisser
42
```
not knowing much
about higher mental
processes – thinking,
problem-solving, long-term
remembering
```
1
| st gap
43
almost complete
| absence of physiology
2
| nd gap
44
holds incoming information for a
fraction of a second then
passes most of this information
to short-term memory
Sensory memory:
45
has
limited capacity and holds
information for seconds
vShort-term Memory:
46
a highcapacity system that can hold
information for long periods of
time
Long-term Memory:
47
: LTM is subdivided
| into three components
Endel Tulving
48
memory for
| events in life
Episodic memory:
49
memory for
| facts
Semantic memory
50
memory for
| physical actions
Procedural memory
51
```
study of
the behavior of people with
brain damage which provided
insights into the functioning
of different parts of the brain
```
Neuropsychology
52
```
measuring
electrical responses of the
nervous system which made it
possible to listen to the activity
of single neurons | mostly done
on animals
```
• Electrophysiology:
53
```
1976 |
made it possible to see which
areas of the human brain are
activated during cognitive
activity | expensive, involved
injecting radioactive tracers into
the bloodstream
```
Positron Emission
| Tomography (PET):
54
```
capable of higher resolution |
did not involve radioactive
tracers
• Neuroimage
• Human Brain Mapping
```
```
Functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (fMRI)
```
55
```
features an increasing
amount of research on
cognition in “real-world”
situations. – experiments
involving moving through the
environment and acting on it
```
Modern cognitive psychology
56
```
illustrated how our knowledge
about the environment can
influence our perception
• Palmer’s observers were using
their knowledge of objects likely
to be found in kitchens to help
them perceive the briefly
flashed loaf of bread.
```
Stephen Palmer (1975)
57
• Remembering meeting
with Mary
• Physiological processes involved
in remembering
Physiological LoA
58
```
developed a staining
technique in which a thin slice
of brain tissue was immersed in
a solution of silver nitrate which
created pictures where cells
can stand out from the rest of
the tissue
```
Camillo
| Golgi
59
```
investigated the nature of
the nerve net using the Golgi
stain which stained only some
of the cells, and studying the
brains of newborn animals
which have a smaller density
than adult brains
```
Ramon y
| Cajal
60
were the basic
building blocks of the brain
was the centerpiece of
neuron doctrine.
neurons
61
the metabolic center
of the neuron; it contains
mechanisms to keep the cell
alive
Cell body
62
receive signals from
| other neurons
Dendrites
63
long
processes that transmit signals
to other neurons
Axons (nerve fibers):
64
small gap between
the end of a neuron’s axon and
the dendrites or cell body of
another neuron
Synapse
65
groups of
| interconnected neurons
Neural circuits:
66
neurons that are
specialized to pick up
information from the
environment
Receptors
67
progression from lower to
| higher areas of the brain
Hierarchical Processing
68
specific functions are served by
| specific areas of the brain
Localization of Function
69
wrinkled layer
of tissue covering of the brain
serving many cognitive
functions
cerebral cortex
70
study of the
behavior of people with brain
damage
Neuropsychology
71
```
the principle that views the
brain operating as an
indivisible whole as
opposed to specialized
areas
```
Cortical Equipotentiality
72
```
patients
suffered brain damage due
to strokes that caused
disruption of the blood
supply to the brain –
strokes caused damage to
an area in the blank in the blank
```
Broca’s aphasia
frontal lobe
brocas area
73
```
patients had a damage in an
area in the blank
producing speech that was
fluent and grammatically
correct but tend to be
incoherent; unable to
understand other people’s
speech
```
tempora lobe
| Wernicke’s aphasia
74
damage to the blank where the visual
cortex is located resulted in
blindness (p 39)
occipital lobe
Russo-Japanese War &
Allied Soldiers in WWI
75
upper
temporal lobe | receives
signals from the ears
Auditory Cortex:
76
```
receives
signals from all of the
senses | responsible for
coordination of the senses,
as well as higher cognitive
functions like thinking and
problem solving
```
• Frontal Lobe
77
parietal lobe | receives
signals from the skin |
perceptions of touch,
pressure and pain
Somatosensory Cortex:
78
```
inability
to recognize faces | can’t
recognize whose face it is
even for people, they know
well | caused by a damage
to the temporal lobe on
the lower-right side of the
brain
```
• Prosopagnosia
79
```
occurs if damage to one area
of the brain causes function A
to be absent while function B
is present, and damage to
another area causes function
B to be absent while function
A is present
```
Double Dissociation
80
```
97% of neurons
within a small area in the
lower part of a monkey’s
temporal lobe responded to
pictures of faces but not to
pictures of other types of
objects | single-neuron
recording
```
Doris Tsao and coworkers
| (2006):
81
```
fusiform gyrus on the
underside of the temporal
lobe | same part damaged in
cases of prosopagnosia |
identified by having people
in a brain scanner look at
pictures of faces
```
Fusiform Face Area (FFA):
82
```
perceiving
pictures representing
indoor and outdoor scenes
| information about spatial
layout
```
Parahippocampal Place
| Area (PPA)
83
activated by
pictures of bodies and
parts of bodies (but not by
faces)
• Extrastriate Body Area
| EBA
84
```
determining what
kind of stimuli each voxel
responded to | findings
confirmed localization and
revealed a map that
stretches over a large area
of the corte
```
Alex Huth & coworkers
| 2012
85
```
showed that
there are two locations for
“humans” – different areas
respond to different
features of humans
```
• Huth’s map of
| categories:
86
```
language goes
beyond isolated regions to
include connections between
them and to other areas as well
(as suggested by Wernicke)
```
• Ross (2010)
87
physiology of language
involved more than just two
separate, localized language
areas
Geshwind (1964) & Ross
| (2010):
88
nonlanguage functions are associated
| with parts of Broca’s area
Federencko et al, 2012
89
processing
of sentence grammar occurs
throughout the language
system
Blank et al, 2016:
90
```
interconnected areas of the
brain that can communicate
with each other (Bassett &
Sporns, 2017) | many areas
involved in a particular type of
cognition might be connected
```
• Neural Networks
91
```
The brain’s “wiring diagram”
created by nerve axons that
connect different brain areas
• Connections were determined
using classical neuroanatomical
techniques – staining brain
slices to highlight axons and
see neural pathways
```
Structural Connectivity
92
based on detection of how water
diffuses along the length of nerve
fibers
Track-weighted Imaging (TWI):
93
```
to indicate the
structural description of the network of
elements and connections forming the
human brain (Sporns et al, 2005) or
the “wiring diagram” of neurons in the
brain (Baronchelli et al, 2013)
```
Connectome:
94
```
Determined to the extent to
which neural activity in two
brain areas are correlated
• If the responses of two brain
areas are correlated with each
other, this means that they are
functionally connected
```
Functional Connectivity
95
the fMRI
response measured while a
person is at rest (not performing
a cognitive task
Resting-state fMRI:
96
introduced the procedure
for measuring resting state
functional connectivity
• Bharat Biswal & coworkers,
| 1995
97
```
Simple everyday experience
involves rapid switching and
sharing of information between
a number of different functional
networks.
• Changes in connectivity can
also occur more slowly
```
The Dynamics of Cognition
98
```
Research using resting-state
functional connectivity method
indicated that areas in the
frontal and parietal lobes that
decrease during tasks have
correlated resting state activity
```
The Default Mode Network
99
```
when DMN is active, people’s
minds tend to wander
• Brain switching from taskrelated networks to DMN
• Mind wandering decreases
performance on tasks that
required focused attention
```
• Killingsworth & Gilbert, 2010:
100
```
A Default Mode of
Brain Function” | areas that
decrease activity during tasks
represent a “default mode” of
brain function – mode of brain
function that occurs when it is
at re
```
Marcus Raichle & coworkers
| (2001):
101
• Experiences resulting from stimulation of the senses
• Central to our ability to organize the actions that occur
as we interact with the environment
perception
102
the structure that lines the
back of the eye and contains the
receptors for seeing
retina
103
```
sequence of events from eye to
brain because it starts at the
“bottom” or beginning of the
system, when environmental
energy stimulates the receptors
```
• Bottom-up Processing:
104
```
a physicist – thermodynamics,
nerve physiology, visual
perception, and aesthetics |
invented ophthalmoscope –
examine the blood vessels
inside the eye
```
Hermann von Helmholtz:
105
```
we
perceive the object that is most
likely to have caused the
pattern of stimuli we have
received
```
• Likelihood Principle
106
knowledge we have of the
environment – processing that
originates in the brain, at the
“top” of the perceptual system
Top-down Processing
107
```
our
perceptions are the result of
unconscious assumptions or
inferences that we make about
the environmen
```
Unconscious Inference:
108
```
• Rejected the idea that
perceptions were formed by
“adding up” sensations
• Stroboscope: creates an illusion
of movement by rapidly
alternating two slightly different
patterns
```
Gestalt Principles of
| Organization
109
```
although
movement is perceived, nothing
is actually moving
One light flashes on and off
• Period of darkness
• Second light flashes on and off
```
Apparent Movement:
110
```
Points that, when connected, result
in straight or smoothly curving lines
are seen as belonging together, and
the lines tend to be seen in such a
way as to follow the smoothest path.
Also, objects that are overlapped by
other objects are perceived as
continuing behind the overlapping
object.
```
Principle of Good Continuation
111
```
: Principle of
Good Figure or the Principle of
Simplicity | Every stimulus
pattern is seen in such a way
that the resulting structure is as
simple as possible.
```
Law of Pragnanz
112
```
Similar
things appear to be grouped
together. | Grouping can also
occur because of similarity of
size, shape, or orientation. |
Intrinsic laws – principles are
“built in”
```
Principle of Similarity
113
People can
perceive horizontals and
verticals more easily than other
orientations
Oblique Effect
114
```
We usually
assume that light is coming
from above, because light in
our environment, including the
sun and the most artificial light,
usually comes from above.
```
Assumption
115
```
Our perception of illuminated
shape is influenced by how they
are shaded, combined with the
brain’s assumption that light is
coming from above.
• Our system is adapted to
respond to the physical
characteristics of environment
```
Physical Regularities
