cognitive psy Flashcards
Piaget: Sources of Continuity
Key Ideas - Schema
So schema is a category of knowledge that help us to identify and understand the world. And as experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to or change previously existing schemas.
Piaget: Sources of Continuity
Key Ideas – Assimilation & Accommodation
So when we see something in the environment and we try to see whether or not it fits with our existing schemas we’re using this process of assimilation.
Accommodation is the separation of a new schema
Piaget: Sources of Discontinuity
Key Ideas – Invariant Sequence
- There are different stages and these stages cannot be reverted and skiped
- there’s a brief period of transition between this process.
Concrete-Operational
Children able to manipulate mentally internal representations formed in the preoperational period
Sensorimotor Stage
- Children explore their world through the senses and motor abilities
1-4m primary circular reaction (repeat of pleasurable action)
4-8m secondary circular reaction, repeat an action to trigger a response
12-18 tertiary circular reaction trial and error exp
Piaget: Some Problems
. Focused on inabilities rather than abilities.
- Less attention on the social context.
- Focused on decontextualised rather than everyday problems.
- Says little about language development.
- Suggests that intellectual development is largely complete by the age of 12.
Operational Thought: Perspective Taking
task one, set up a diorama and ask a children to describe what the doll might see, <4 dont understand
- hughes 1975 repeat this experiment but with real human playing hide and seek, ask what the seeker see
- the child understand wording important
What is play
“Activities of a non-serious nature, which are highly individual, are engaged in for pleasure and which may not be associated with reality.”
Play Development - Cognitive
Functional play(first 2 years) (Simple, repetitive movements, sometimes with objects or own body. )
Pretend play(3-8 years and 8-15 years) (Substitutes make- believe, imaginary
and dramatic situations for real ones. )
Constructive Play(3-15 years)(Manipulation of objects in order to construct something.)
Games with rules(6-15 years)
Pretend Play Development
Functional Play 12-18 months
Simulation with substitution, action 2.5 year
3-5 years Less egocentric simulations, Socio-dramatic play, Role playing
Autism development
Hyper-connected neuron wiring making the world an intense sensory experience
- Preference for literal language.
- Strong and narrow interests and subjects
- Safety and comfort in routines and rules
Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
-The knowledgeable other teaches children skill which they then develop(could be anyoune)
-3 zones: current understanding, zone of proximal development and out of reach
reliant on learning that skill through communication.
The child as a scientist / computer or
social learner
The child is actively involved in their learning by taking things from the environment but the relationship itself, the more knowledgeable other and the opportunities to learn from other
The type of teaching, even something like the strength of the relationship can all impact how that child learns.
Conservation concept
-children understand that even if an object changes in shape or size, it remain the same
Pretend Play and ToM
- autistic Children engage less in spontaneous pretend play, so they tend to not have a preference for it.
- They might like constructive play or functional play, or even games with rules over pretend play, and this is sometimes interpreted as a preference. but some see this as rejection, hesitation or inability
- there are differences in autistic kids performance on theory of mind tasks.
- the autistic kid either lack, does not develop as well as their peer or develop it differently
- autistic Children’s performance can actually be predicted by their language ability when it comes to theory of mind
- language comprehension important in ToM
Stages of piaget
- Sensory mother 0-2 yo
- Preoperational 2-6 children used symbol to represent object (not logical)
- Concrete operational (7-12) Children can think logically about concrete objects
- Formal operational, children can think abstractly
Quality of pretend play and autism
- antony read, leav the book on table
- sonya move the book
- where will anthony find the book
- the kid point at the location
- most of them could do it
An Integrated Model of Intelligence
Carroll proposed an integration of competing views of intelligence, the three-stratum theory of intelligence.
highest is general intelligence (g)to larger sub and then to specific
Benefit of IQ testing
A uniform way of comparing cognitive performance
Excellent predictors of academic achievement
Identified strengths and weaknesses can create individualised learning plans
Limitations of IQ testing
A single score is often inadequate in explaining multidimensional aspects of intelligence
- Does not capture complexity and immediacy of real-life situations
- Influences such as physical/emotional stability, limited experiences, unfamiliarity with language
Reasons for conducting IQ tests
As part of a comprehensive psycho-educational evaluation to aide in the identification of intellectual disability, specific learning disorders or intellectual giftedness
• Determine placement in specialised programs / funding
• Neuropsychological evaluation
• Clinical Intervention
• Research
Wechsler Intelligence Test for Children
WISC-V
the most widely used test for kids 6 and up in Australia is the Weschler intelligence test for children.
the full scale IQ that is the G. have five general abilities
-Verbal comprehesion (think and understand words)
-Visual spatial reasoning (think in picture)
-Fluid reasoning (logic)
-working memory and processing speed
Sentence Composition test
include sentence combination and sentence making
WIAT-III ANZ Structure
four main areas Reading, Written Language , Mathematics, Oral Language
Phonological Awareness
listen to word in smaller part and deduct what word did it make
Specific Learning Disorders
- Affects a person’s ability to “receive, store, process, retrieve or communicate information”
- Can manifest in one or more areas of academic achievement
- Outstanding feature of SLD is that the student’s underachievement is unexpected
- Prevalence is between 5-15% of students
- Greatly benefit from the use of appropriate adaptations, accommodations and compensatory strategies
Classification of SLDs
A. Difficulties learning and using academic skills, as indicated by the presence of at least one of the following symptoms that have persisted for at least 6 months, despite provision of interventions that target those difficulties:
- inaccurate or slow and effortful word reading
- understanding the meaning of what is read
- spelling
- written expression
- mastering number sense etc.
- mathematical reasoning
B. The affected academic skills are substantially below those expected for the individual’s chronological age and cause significant interference with academic or occupational performance.
C. The learning difficulties began during school age.
D. Are not better accounted for by intellectual disabilities, other neurological disorders, lack of proficiency in the language of academic instruction or inadequate educational instruction.
Historical Perspective to SLD
• Previous methods of identification and assessment have failed to adequately distinguish between groups.
Pattern of Strengths and Weaknesses
Cognitive deficit is specific, not general or pervasive because overall cognitive ability is at least average
Academic deficit is unexpected, because overall cognitive ability is at least average
-cognitive weakness is consistent with academic weakness
-cognitive weakness and academic weakness is discrepant with cognitive streght
Reading and the Brain
Broca’s area Inferior frontal gyrus (articulation / word analysis)
Parietotemporal (word analysis)
Occipitotemporal (word form)
Response to Intervention (RTI)
Systematic phonics instruction incorporates the following three principles:
(1) letter-sound associations
(2) a pre-planned sequence of letter-sound associations
(3) the associations are practiced in text as well as in isolation
Response to Phonics Through Spelling
Intervention in Children with Dyslexia
there was improvement over that 10 to 12 week period. But the mean is still quite low. There’s still a lot of kids that are performing in that low group. So what this shows is that a shorter intervention like this at 10 to 12 weeks is not going to result in significant change in performance for kids with dyslexia and. What we see for typically developing children children without dyslexia is that we do see more significant change
Reading Acceleration and Brain
changes
Task children to read fast and accurately, test 1 baseline, test 2 4 week after intervention.
normal children, only left side hemisphere activated, rd children both hemisphere activated
-this change after intervention, may be important
Dyslexie – A unique font for children
and adults with Dyslexia
unique font for kids andadolescents and adults with dyslexia.
rationale behind thisis that people with dyslexia struggle to distinguish between similar looking letters.
The letters are made to look as different as possible by changing the angling and the heights and the forms of similarly shaped lettersand then capital letters and punctuation are made bolder to alert
-test result 70 to 75 word per minute
but the effect could be due to spacing as increasing ariel font spacing have the same effect
The Nature of the Infant
Infancy: the first few years of life, from birth to around 1 year of age. A period of rapid development
Fits within Piaget’s sensorimotor stage
Key ideas in the ancient history of “developmental psychology”
Plato
• Children are born with innate knowledge.
Aristotle
• All knowledge comes from experience. The infant’s mind is a blackboard with nothing written on it.
Why Are We Interested in
Newborn Reflexes?
Innate, fixed, automatic patterns of action that occur in response to particular stimulation.
•Biologically based – importance for survival?
•Some have clear adaptive value (eg. withdrawal from painful stimulus, rooting reflex); others do not
•Gives a quick indication of neurological status. Absent reflexes suggest brain damage.
•Some reflexes are retained (eg. sneezing, withdrawal from pain); most drop out on a regular schedule.
Some common newborn reflexes
- Grasping: finger grasp when object placed in hand (see photo)
- Rooting: head turn with mouth open when touched on cheek (see photo)
- Sucking and swallowing reflexes when mouth comes in contact with nipple
- Moro: outstretched arms & arched back when startled or loss of support
- Crawling: rhythmic moving of arms and legs when on tummy and pressure applied to soles of feet
- Stepping: toes and foot coordinated movements when supported on a hard surface, moved forward
Sight – What Can Infants See?
Rapid development of visual abilities in the prenatal period:
•Poor acuity in the first few months, but prominent features “pop out”. By 8 months acuity is similar to adults
•Can see objects at a distance of about 14cm
•Colour perception by 1 month, at adult-like levels by 2 months
•Attracted to moving stimuli and can visually track moving objects by 4 months
Newborn visual preferences for social stimuli:
●Look longer at regular face-like pattern than scrambled face patterns (Farroni, et al., 2005)
●Preferentially look at faces over other stimuli
●Can differentiate familiar from unfamiliar faces (Di Giorgio et al., 2012) and smiling from unsmiling faces
●Look longer at human biological motion than at other kinds of motion (Bidet-Ildei et al., 2014)
•Preferential looking techniques enable us to infer what infants can see
•Gaze preferences have implications for what babies observe & learn.
•Interestingly, babies later diagnosed with ASD do not show a preference for faces over other displays. They perhaps miss out on social & language cues conveyed by faces.
Preferential looking at face-like stimuli in fetus
- The third trimester human fetus preferentially looks towards three dots configured like a face rather then three dots in an inverted configuration.
- This suggests a preference for face-like stimuli even before birth: babies are innately disposed to attend to social stimuli
Sound – What Can Infants Hear?
- At birth, the auditory system is well developed relative to the visual system
- Research shows newborns discriminate mum’s voice from female stranger, and discriminate familiar from novel story read by mum.
- There is evidence of preparedness for language – an infant can discriminate sounds of speech in own language from other languages at 6 months.
Taste and smell development of infant
- Differences in mouth chemistry make sensory experience different for infants compared to adults
- Salty fluid that would be rejected by older children and adults will be ingested by infants.
- Taste chemistry changes throughout childhood reaching adult form by early adolescence.
- Breastfed newborns discriminate, and prefer (turn toward), their mum’s scent than lactating stranger.
- Bottle fed infants prefer (turn toward) scent of lactating females.
- Breast feeding seems to trigger odour learning and the development of preferences.
Touch – What Can Infants Feel?
- Newborns are sensitive to temperature change.
- Evidence of sensitivity to pain - physiological indicators (crying, facial grimace, stress hormones, hard to comfort, etc). Not possible to assess cognitive components of pain.
- Newborns are sensitive to affectionate touch: newborn brain responses to light touch have been demonstrated. The brain response is attenuated in preterm infants (Maitre et al., 2017).
- Positive sensory experiences in NICU (eg. skin to skin holding, gentle stroking) enhance neurological outcomes for preterm infants (Pineda at al., 2020).
- Research with humans and other mammals suggest that touch may be a necessity for mammalian development, both at a physiological and social level
Caregiver touch – the physiological & psychosocial benefits for somatosensory
- in rodent increase connection of S1 and refine connection
- in childl greater hemispheric functional connection and maturity
Can lead to better sensory procession and cognitive function
Caregiver touch – the physiological & psychosocial benefits for autonomic regulation
-in rodent blunt fear and stress response
In child lower stress reaction and heighten avagal action
Lead to adaptive regulation of stress and arousal
the physiological & psychosocial benefits for Immune fuction
-in rodent altered microbiome, decrease hippocampal inflammation
- in human decreased risk of infection and activation of killer cell
Might lead to protection from mental and physical illness
the physiological & psychosocial benefits of touch for Affinities bonding
-in rodent lead to unregulated oxytocin, greater social behavior
-in human lead to unregulated oxytocin, more breast feeding and mother infant bond
May lead to development of social behavior and secure attachment
the physiological & psychosocial benefits of touching Social cognition
- in rodent alters lambic fuction and structure, regulation of dopamine and opioid level
- in human maturation of social brain, regulation of dopamine and opioid receptor distribution
- regulation of reward seeking behavior and enhanced learning
Motor Milestones in Infancy
- lift head up 2m
- roll over 2 1/2
- sit and prop up 3m
- sit w/out sp 6m
- stand up with hand 6 1/2
- walk holding on9m
- stand up momentarily 10m
- stand alone 11m
- walk alone 12m
- walk backward 14m
- walk up step 17m
- kick ball 20m
Variability: Motor Milestones in Infancy
•Motor milestones not met by latter end of average range may require further investigation •Investigation important especially if multiple developmental delays have been noted Note: •Developmental norms of motor skills are based on observations of homogenous samples of US middle-class infants of European descent. •There are cultural differences in motor milestones, reflecting contexts of development. Eg. earlier sitting in contexts that provide less external support, such as in Kenya, versus contexts such as USA. •Cultural and individual variation helps us understand the possible ‘how and why’ of developmen
Cultural & individual variation in motor milestones
- Primary predictor of individual differences in motor skills is experience, which reflects the infant’s everyday opportunities to practice motor skills in naturalistic contexts.
- Cultural variation in sitting: Infants in African countries tend to sit earlier than infants in the US (eg. 4 months in Uganda)
- Individual variation in sitting: Jamaican infants whose mothers ‘exercised their limbs’ and placed them in sitting positions, sat earlier than Jamaican infants whose mothers did not engage in these practices
Why do we focus on infancy and infant
cognition
Infancy prepares the person for what comes next in development: childhood, adolescence, adulthood.
Unless we understand infant cognition we are not going to be able to understand a child’s cognition, adolescent cognition or adult cognition.
Things that the infant notices and pays attention to, the capacities that an infant develops, are those that are going to be important for his/her future as a child and adult. And possibly of evolutionary importance.
Atypical infant development may indicate sensory, motor or cognitive concerns
The Active Child
Infants and children actively engage with the world – they look around, pay attention, try things out, move, explore. They are not merely passive recipients of external stimulation.
Substage 1-3 of piaget sesorimotor
• Substage 1 (birth–1 month)
Modify reflexes to adapt to the environment (eg. different sucking motion for different objects)
Centred on own body
• Substage 2 (1–4 months)
Organize reflexes – eg. grasp object, bring it to mouth & suck (grasping and sucking reflexes have been integrated into an action sequence)
Integrate actions
• Substage 3 (4–8 months)
Actions on objects
Repetition of actions resulting in pleasurable or interesting results (play with a rattle)
Substage 4-6 of piaget sensorimotor
• Substage 4 (8–12 months)
Begin searching for hidden objects (so must have a memory for objects, beginning of mental representation)
Object Permanence (Video to follow)
Fragile mental representations – A not B error
• Substage 5 (12–18 months)
Active exploration of potential use of objects
• Substage 6 (18–24 months)
Beginning to form enduring mental representations, greater use of language
– marks the end of the sensorimotor stage
The Hiding Problem
0-5 months
an attractive toy is shown to the baby and then is placed under a towel as the baby watches
Infants typically follow the toy with their eyes as it disappears under the towel but no active search
At 0-5 months infant acts as if they have no mental representation of the object: out of sight, out of mind.
• Understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched.
• Active search, indicating object permanence, mastered between 6 and 9 months
Why is object permanace important
Object permanency is important because you need to mentally represent an object in order to search for it: mental representation indicates thought.
Positive of piaget theory
A good overview of broad changes in children’s thinking at different points of development
Covers a broad spectrum of development from infancy to adolescence and covers development in a broad range of domains – eg. objects, time, space, language, moral reasoning, problem solving.
Fascinating and detailed observations
Negative of piaget compare to vygotsky and CKS
Stage model depicts children’s thinking as more consistent than it is within each stage
Piaget’s theory is vague about the cognitive processes that give rise to children’s thinking and the mechanisms that produce cognitive growth hence information processing accounts of developmental change.
Piaget understated the contribution of the social world to development (vs Vygotsky)
Infants and young children are more cognitively competent than Piaget recognised, as demonstrated in research on core knowledge systems.
Core-Knowledge Theories
Infants are born with some innate knowledge in domains of special evolutionary importance
Alongside their general learning abilities, infants have domain-specific specialised learning abilities for rapidly and easily acquiring new information in these domains.
The core knowledge systems form the foundation for subsequent learning.
Domain of core knowledge
- Objects & their mechanical interactions
- Agents & their goal-directed actions
- Number and magnitude
- Spatial layouts & geometric relationships
- Possibly, social partners
Core-Knowledge Theories: features
Domain Specific: limited to a particular area. These are areas of evolutionary
importance, such as objects, space, actions, social partners.
Active Child: infants are biologically equipped from birth to actively acquire
knowledge and understanding from their environment, using domain-specific core knowledge systems.
Nativism & Constructivism: some core knowledge researchers focus on innate
core knowledge, while others emphasise that increasingly sophisticated
understanding is constructed from the core foundation, using both core knowledge systems and general learning abilities.
Objects: Possible versus impossible events
Objects: Possible versus impossible events
In a classic series of tests, Renée Baillargeon and her colleagues first habituated young infants to
the sight of a screen rotating through 180 degrees. Then a box was placed in the path of the screen.
In the possible event, the screen rotated up, occluding the box, and stopped when it reached the top
of the box. In the impossible event, the screen rotated up, occluding the box, but then continued on
through 180 degrees, appearing to pass through the space where the box was. Infants looked
longer at the impossible event, showing they mentally represented the presence of the invisible box.
(From Baillargeon, 1987)Objects: Possible versus impossible events
child pay more attention to the impossible event
Core knowledge: objects
Core knowledge of objects has certain features and
limits:
• Objects move as connected & bounded wholes
• Objects move on connected, unobstructed paths
• Objects do not interact at a distance
• Infants can track & represent only about 3 objects at a time
Infants demonstrate these abilities at the earliest age we can test them, suggesting these abilities are not dependent on visual experience
Core knowledge:
knowing the number of things
1+1 show
possible tow object
impossible 1 object
Core knowledge of events: prediction of
outcome
jar filled with red ball and some white
possible mostly red
impossble mostly white
Core knowledge: agents and their actions
Infants and young children (0–2 years of age) use early forms of psychological reasoning to make sense of social agents’ intentional actions.
Core knowledge: actions of agents are goal-directed and goals are achieved by efficient means.
Core knowledge: imitation of an agent’s
intention
From age 12-18 months, when a child sees a person try but fail to perform an action, they will imitate the intended action. In this example, 18-month-olds see someone try but fail to pull the ends off a dumbbell. The children imitate pulling the ends off – what the person intended to do. They do not imitate the mechanical devise.
- Lots of other examples of young children (by 12-14 months old) imitating intentions even when the adult does not manage to achieve their intention. —-They imitate adult intentional actions more often that adult mistakes. Understanding of intentions is an early step in acquiring theory of mind.
- Babies imitate intended actions that the adult failed to carry out, and actions that do not serve a purpose.
Core knowledge of social partners
Human communities show co-operation & reciprocity with group
members and tend to form alliances /coalitions.
Language is a cue to group membership, and infants are sensitive
to language spoken form a young age:
From birth, infants show a preference for their native language
over a foreign language
Infants look longer at person who speaks to them in their native
language
Infants choose food items that they have observed speakers of
their language eating rather than food items eaten by a speaker
of a different language
Infants are more likely to imitate the intended action of a person
speaking their native language
Core Knowledge Systems
Systems are limited in a number of ways.
They are:
• domain specific each system represent only a small subset of the things and events that infants perceive,
• task specific each system functions to solve a limited set of problems, and
• encapsulated each system operates with a fair degree of independence from other cognitive systems.
Core knowledge: violation of expectation
- Not only does core knowledge indicate what an infant understands from an early age (nativism), it also helps to motivate and shape further learning about the world. One way is through violation of expectation, which appears to motivate further exploration.
- This demonstrates that infants actively construct new understanding from the interaction of their core knowledge with new experiences
- Without core knowledge, infants would not experience surprise
- Surprise may motivate infants to explore objects visually and physically more than they otherwise would, suggesting a link between core knowledge and Piagetian accounts
Difference between piaget and CKT
-piaget is discontinuous development while CKT is continuous
-Piaget said infant have limited innate skills and
capabilities while CKT is oppoosite
-Piaget is vague about specific mechanisms that
promote cognitive development while CKT is specififc (violation of expectation)
-Cognitive development is domain general vs specific
Sociocultural theories: key features
-View of children’s nature: children are social learners who are highly motivated to share attention and activities with others. In turn, adults and other people are eager to help children learn new skills and understanding. Humans are unique among species in that we explicitly teach each other – this occurs in all human cultures
-Culturally specific: Through participating in activities with others, children learn the particular skills, understandings, practices and values of their own culture. In contrast, Piaget emphasised that children develop general understanding that is applicable across all cultures – eg. concepts of time, space, objects and living things.
-Sociocultural theories emphasise that children learn ways of thinking and doing things that may be unique to their own culture.
-Constructivist: sociocultural theories see children as actively constructing knowledge, understanding, and thinking skills within the context of social interactions. Once a new skill has been acquired, children can use the skill independently.
Continuous development: development is continuous rather than stage like. As children learn from others they gradually become immersed in their culture.
Sociocultural theories: intersubjectivity &
joint attention& scafolding
Intersubjectivity: The mutual understanding and sharing of experience with another person during communication. Shown through eye contact, facial expression, interaction, talking/vocalising, sharing
Joint Attention: Focusing on the same object or event with another person
Scaffolding: A more competent person provides a temporary framework that supports learning at a higher level than the learner could manage alone. The competent person structures and organises the activity.
Infants’ Face Scanning
From birth infants preferentially look at faces. In the first few months their looking enables them to pick up on cues about emotion, language and following someone else’s gaze direction.
Infant Gaze Following & joint attention
Following an adult’s gaze helps infants participate in joint attention with the adult: the adult and infant jointly pay attention to each other and to an external object or activity. This sets the condition for learning about that object or activity and learning about other peoples’ emotional responses/attitudes.
Shared intentionality
-Intersubjectivity (or shared intentionality) involves understanding and sharing another person’s psychological states, including their desires, intentions and enjoyment. Interest and attention is shared between the infant and adult.
-Non-human primates will follow eye gaze and can understand the goals of others: they show core knowledge of agents and their goals. But
research suggests they do not look at an interacting social partners just to share interest, enjoyment and attention to an external thing.
-According to sociocultural theories of cognitive development, intersubjectivity is the basis for uniquely human cultural cognition.
Is language important for cognitive development? Contrasting
points of view
Piaget: Cognitive advances occur as children act directly on the physical world. They adapt their current thinking to fit external reality. Language is relatively unimportant in sparking changes in thinking.
Vygotsky: Cognitive advances are the result of social not independent learning. Adults and older children scaffold children’s learning via joint activity and co-operative dialogue. Language is crucial as it is the primary means by which children acquire concepts and social meanings. Language opens new cognitive doors and shapes thought.
Overview of the role of language in sociocultural theories of
cognitive development
- Once children start to use language, they participate in social dialogues with others.
- Dialogue with others while involved in meaningful activity allows children to develop cognitive abilities such as naming, categorising, planning, problem-solving, and reasoning.
- Once children can participate in dialogue with others, they start using speech that is directed towards the self. They talk to themselves in a similar way to how adults have talked to them. This is known as private speech.
- Through private speech, children develop self-regulation and problem solving abilities. They tell themselves what to do.
- Private speech is common in 4-6 year-olds. Older children and adults sometimes use private speech on challenging tasks.
- When private speech becomes fully internalised and inaudible, it has become thought.
Different view Private speech in pre-schoolers
Piaget’s view: Paiget considered this to be egocentric speech, reflecting that a child in the preoperational stage cannot yet take on the perspective of others.
Vygotsky’s view: Children talk to themselves for self-guidance, especially when tasks are difficult or they are unsure how to proceed. Speech helps children regulate their own behaviour and select an action. Language is the foundation for higher cognitive processes such as planning, problem-solving and reasoning.
Private speech is self-directed speech that children use to plan and organise their behaviour.
As children get older and find tasks easier, private speech declines and becomes silent, inner speech. Recent research supports Vygotsky’s view.
key differences between Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s theories of cognitive development
Paiget: . Constructivist: children discover almost all their knowledge via their own activity. Domain general: general purpose reasoning abilities that apply across all types of knowledge.
Vygotsky: Also saw children as active seekers of knowledge, but not as solitary agents. Social and cultural context profoundly affects children’s cognitive development. Children master challenging tasks with help from adults & older peers via joint activity and language. Children develop cognitive skills that are adaptive in their particular culture. Social and cultural view of the developing child instead of an individualistic view.
