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Psychology 1A > Cognitive Neuroscience > Flashcards

Cognitive Neuroscience Flashcards

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1
Q

What is cognitive neuroscience

A

The scientific study of biological substrates underlying cognition, with a specific focus on the neural substrates of mental processes

It addresses the questions of how psychological/cognitive functions are produced by neural circuits in the brain

Studying how the brain controls our different cognitive abilities (memory, language etc)

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2
Q

Why can the brain block out environment

A

To get done tasks that are important in the moment

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3
Q

How can we see what functions patients with brain damage (Alzheimer’s etc) can still perform

A

By studying the brain

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4
Q

What must happen so the brain can understand information processed in our environment

A
  • the brain cannot understand all the information processed in our environment e.g light waves/sound waves
  • they need to be converted into electrochemical signals that the brain can understand
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5
Q

Photoreceptors in the eye

A
  • the back of the eye has photoreceptors
  • these are the cells that will convert the light energy into an electrochemical signal
  • these electrochemical signals are sent to the brain
  • all photoreceptors have axons
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6
Q

Fovea

A
  • highest number of photoreceptors

- vision is the most accurate

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7
Q

Optic nerve

A
  • axons from photoreceptor cells leave the eye

- no photoreceptor cells in optic nerve: essentially blind in this area

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8
Q

Does everyone have blind spots in their eye

A

Yes however you are unaware as your brain is clever enough to fill in that information

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9
Q

Somatosensory Cortex

A
  • in the brain there is a right and left somatosensory cortex
  • this is the brain area that receives information about sensation (pain on the body part, something touching you)

Left part of body-> send signal to right
somatosensory cortex

Right side of body-> send signal to left
somatosensory cortex

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10
Q

How are body parts mapped on the brain

A
  • very differently to on the body e.g eye and nose are close together
  • different body parts have a larger cortex- size of brain area associated to a body part does not necessarily relate to size of body part in real life
  • more cortex allocated for body part= more sensitive e.g face, lips
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11
Q

Why should neuroscience matter to psychologists

A
  • humans (and animals) are biological system
  • the basic assumption of all modern neuroscience and psychology: mental functions are the product of activity in the nervous system
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12
Q

The nervous system

A
  • receives sensory information from the environment
  • integrates and processes information (converts into electrochemical signals)
  • regulates internal functions
  • produces motor actions in response to environment
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13
Q

How can healthy brain be affected

A
  • e.g alcohol affected- will make the brain not work as efficiently
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14
Q

Living beings: Levels of observation

A
  1. Body
  2. Systems - forms overall body
  3. Organs - make up systems e.g central nervous system
  4. Tissues- lots of different tissue can make up an organ
  5. Cells- bundle of cells make up tissues
  6. Genes- stored within cells
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15
Q

Cell communication

A

If communication is disrupted between cells or they die, this can have affects on behaviour

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16
Q

The living cell

A
  • membrane (structure): semi-permeable, can let something in & out, protects cell
  • nucleus
  • nucleolus: contains chromosomes- DNA
  • mitochondria: converts nutrients into ATP for chemical energy, cell requires this to perform certain functions
  • channels (made of proteins): exchange materials e.g nutrients
  • other proteins: specialised functions of cell, other proteins in them
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17
Q

Cells of nervous system

A

1) neurons:
do much of communication within nervous system

2) glia cells:
have support roles, 10X as much glia cells as neurons
- type of glia cell is Schwann cell- insulates cell to ensure signal along the cell happens quickly and is not lost

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18
Q

Neurons structure

A
  • dendrites (at top)
  • axon hillock
  • Schwann cells
  • nucleus
  • cell body (soma)
  • axon
  • axon terminal
  • nodes of Ranvier
  • look slightly different depending where they’re from
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19
Q

Neurogenesis

A
  • new neurons can be formed from neural stem cells (embryonic stem cells)
  • this happens in some (not all) parts of the brain e.g denate gyrus in hippocampus
  • can be facilitated by environment and mental stimulation e.g learning of new information
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20
Q

The neuron: an excitable cell

A
  • may differ depending which area of brain they are in

- essentially have very similar structure

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21
Q

Nucleus within neurons

A
  • contains all DNA for that cell
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22
Q

Dendrites within neurons

A
  • look like tree branches, important for receiving incoming signals from neighbouring cells
  • important for input into cell
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23
Q

Axon within neurons

A
  • takes signal away from the cell (cells tend to have one axon) signal will travel down axon to terminal buttons at end and send signal to neighbouring cell
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24
Q

Axon hillock within neurons

A

Cell body connects to axon where cell decided if it will fire it not

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25
Q

Schwann cells

A

Glia cells which form the Myelin Sheath, insulates axon so signal doesn’t get lost and is quick

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26
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A
  • little gaps in axon, Bayern the myelin sheath
  • electrical impulse travelling along the cell, jump over these gaps= quickens the transmission of signal across the cell
    = called SALATORY CONDUCTION
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27
Q

Axon terminal

A

Has axon buttons at the end

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28
Q

Santiago Roman allowed us to understand anout tiny gap between axon terminals of one cell and dendrites of another

A
  • 2 cells are not touching, tiny gap called synapse, signal crosses synapse
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29
Q

When dendrites of a cell receive lots of stimulation from other cells

A

Cell will decide if they need to fire -> send electrical impulse down axon-> down to synapse

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30
Q

What happens when electrical impulse gets to synapse

A
  • electrical impulse cannot jump across synapse

- chemical signal must be used at synapse

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31
Q

Order of events when receiving electrical signal to send to brain

A
  1. Spatial summation - electrical signals fired due to stimulation
  2. Action potential - electrical signal across axon
  3. Neurotransmitter release - chemical signal released as neurotransmitters and attach to receptors in postsynaptic terminal
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32
Q

The action potential electricity and chemistry stage

A

Electricity:

1) most single atoms have an electric charge (+ or -) charged atoms are called ions
2) an overall difference in charge between nearby areas creates an electric potential (aka voltage)

Chemistry:
3) diffusion: particles diffuse to equate concentrations across space

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33
Q

Multiple sclerosis

A

Autoimmune disease- ones own immune system damages the myelin sheath

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34
Q

Types of neuron

A
  • cerebellum (purkinie cell)
  • hippocampus (pyramidal fell)
  • Retina (bipolar cell)
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35
Q

Motor neuron disease

A

A family of diseases in which motor neurons degenerate and die

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36
Q

Communication between neurons

A

is the process by which one neuron communicates with another

Presunaptic cell becomes postsynaptic cell

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37
Q

Neurotransmitters

A
  • glutamate
  • GABA (y-aminobutync-acid)
  • acetylcholine (Ach)
  • dopamine
  • serotonin (5-HT)
  • norephinephrine (NE, aka noradrenaline)
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38
Q

Neurotransmitter- glutamate (Glu)

A

Function:

  • the most common excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain
  • important for learning and memory

What can go wrong:

  • too much -> over-excitation -> seizures, migraines
  • role in Obsessive- compulsive disorder (OCD)
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39
Q

Neurotransmitter - GABA (y- aminobutync-acid)

A

Function:

  • the most common inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain
  • counteracts the effects of glutamate
  • regulates and prevents over-excitation

What can go wrong:

  • GABA deficiency ->
  • seizures, tremors, insomnia
  • increased responsiveness t stress -> increased risk of anxiety disorder and phobias
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40
Q

Neurotransmitter - Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

Function:
- regulates motor control:
- excitatory in synapses between
neurons and skeletal muscles
- inhibitory in synapses between neurons and
the heart
- also important in attention, learning, memory, arousal

What can go wrong:

  • role in depression
  • Alzheimer’s disease- associated with degeneration of cholinerhic neurons
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41
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A
  • the most common form of dementia
  • definitive diagnosis- only post- mortem
- symptoms - impairments to:
 • memory 
 • language 
 • reasoning 
 • orientation 
 • judgement
42
Q

Neurotransmitter - dopamine

A 
Function:
- plays an important role in:
  • movement 
  • motivation/reward, pleasure, arousal
- tied to addiction

What can go wrong:

  • too much -> linked to schizophrenia
  • not enough -> tremors, difficulty initiating and stopping movement (typical of Parkinson’s disease)
43
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A
  • results from degeneration of dopamine producing brain cells
  • primary symptoms:
    • tremor in hands, arms, legs, jaw and face
    • difficulty initiating AND stopping movements
    • rigidity or stiffness if limbs and trunk
    • slow movement
    • impaired balance
44
Q

Neurotransmitter - seratonin (5-HT)

A

Function:

  • regulates mood, appetite, sleep
  • involved in arousal and aggression
  • involves in cognitive functions- learning & memory
45
Q

Neurotransmitter - Norephinephrine (NE, aka noradrenaline)

A

Function:
- regulates mood, arousal e.g vigilance to danger

What can go wrong:
- not enough-> mood disorders e.g depression

46
Q

Drug types and the synapse

A
  1. Agonists:
    Mimic or increase the effect of a neurotransmitter
  2. Antagonists:
    Block or decrease the effect of a neurotransmitter
47
Q

Different agonists

A
  • block reuptake (blocks cell from reabsorbing substance therefore increasing amount in brain)
    examples: Prozac (SSRI) and cocaine (blocks dopamine, norephinephrine & seratotin reuptake)
  • increase neurotransmitter release
    examples: amphetamines (stimulate release of dopamine and norepinephrine)
  • increase production of neurotransmitter
    examples: L-dopa (precursor of dopamine, used for Parkinson’s)
  • binds and activate post-synaptic receptors
    examples: nicotine (activated Ach receptors
    Cannabis (activates CB1 cannabinoid
    receptor- anandamide)
48
Q

Different antagonists

A
  • bind to post-synaptic receptor and block it
    example: Haloperidol (prevents dopamine from activating receptors by blocking them; used to treat Schizophrenia)
  • prevent release if neurotransmitter:
    example: Botulinum Toxin (prevents Ach vesicles from fusing with membrane)
49
Q

Nervous system

A

An interacting network of neurons that conveys electrochemical information throughout the body

50
Q

Central nervous system

A

The part of the nervous system that is composed of the brain and spinal cord

51
Q

Peripheral nervous system (pns)

A

The part of the nervous system that convey the central nervous system to the body’s organs and muscles

52
Q

Somatic nervous system

A

A set of nerves that convey information into and out of the central nervous system

53
Q

Organisation of nervous system

A

Nervous system
⬇️ ⬇️
Peripheral CNS

  ⬇️                        ⬇️ Autonomic                 Somatic (controls voluntary  (controls self             movements of skeletal  regulated                   muscle) action of internal                organs and glands)

⬇️ ⬇️
Sympathetic Parasympathetic
(arousing) (calming)

54
Q

Autonomic nervous system - sympathetic and parasympathetic

A
  • a set of nerves that carry involuntary and automatic commands
  • controls and regulates blood vessels, organs (including the heart) and glands

Sympathetic nervous system:

  • set of nerves that prepare body for action in threatening situations
  • increases arousal
  • for Fs: fight, flight, feed, mate

Parasympathetic nervous system:

  • set of nerves that help body return to normal resting state
  • reduces arousal
55
Q

How do the two systems sympathetic and parasympathetic act (subsystems of autonomic nervous system)

A

In a coordinated manner of eachother

They complement eachother

56
Q

Polygraph machine and it’s issues

A
  • measures arousal
  • they assess the autonomic systems activity
  • measures: blood pressure, heart and breathing rates, skin conductance

Issue:
- some people have high arousal threshold (psychopaths)

57
Q

Spinal reflexes

A

Simple pathways in the nervous system that rapidly generate muscle contractions

58
Q

Regions of spinal cord

A
  • 4 main sections
  • each controls different parts of the body
  • damage higher up spinal cord usually portends greater impairment.
  • contain dorsal horn and ventral horn
59
Q

What is in grey and white matter within the spinal cord

A
  • grey matter: cell bodies

- white matter: Myelinated axons

60
Q

Major divisions of the brain

A
  • The brain can be organised into 3 main parts
  • moving from the bottom to the top, from simpler functions to more complex: the hindbrain, the midbrain and the forebrain
61
Q

Hindbrain

A
  • phylogenetically ancient
  • coordinates information flow to/ from the spinal cord
  • controls basic functions of life
  • includes the medulla, reticular formation, the cerebellum and pons
62
Q

Medulla - within hindbrain

A
  • extension of the spinal cord into the skull
  • controls:
    1. Heart rate
    2. Circulation
    3. Respiration
63
Q

Reticular information - within hindbrain

A
  • brain structure that regulates:
    1. Sleep/ wakefulness
    2. Level of arousal
64
Q

Cerebellum - within hindbrain

A
  • a large structure of hindbrain that controls fine motor skills/activity
  • doesn’t initiate movements but refined and smooths them
65
Q

Pons- within hindbrain

A
  • brain structure that relays information from the cerebellum to the rest of the brain
66
Q

Midbrain

A
  • coordinates basic functions related to perception and action
  • important for orientation and movement
  • includes structures such as the tectum and tegmentum
67
Q

Tectum (dorsal) - within midbrain

A
  • part of midbrain that orients an organism in the environment
  • superior colliculi- vision
  • inferior colliculi - audition
68
Q

Tegmentum (ventral) - within midbrain

A
  • part of the midbrain involved in movement and arousal
  • pleasure seeking
  • substantia nigra
    • high level of dopamine gives it dark colour
    • pale colour in Parkinson’s disease
69
Q

Dorsal and ventral

A

refer to back (dorsal)

front or belly (ventral) of an organism.

70
Q

Forebrain

A
  • highest level of the brain
  • critical for complex cognitive, emotional, sensory and motor functions
  • divided our into 2 parts:
    1. Cerebral cortex
    2. Underlying subcortical structures;
      thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland,
      amygdala and hippocampus
  • corpus callosum connects the two hemispheres of the brain
71
Q

Basal ganglia within forebrain

A
  • set of subcortical structures

- Plan initiation of intentional movements

72
Q

Thalamus- within forebrain

A
  • subcortical structure

- relates and filters information from the senses and transmits to cerebral cortex

73
Q

Hypothalamus - within forebrain

A
  • subcortical structure

- regulates internal body functions; temperature, hunger, thirst and sexual behaviour

74
Q

Pituitary gland - within forebrain

A
  • ‘master gland’ of body’s hormone producing system

- regulates hormones

75
Q

Hippocampus - within forebrain

A
  • creates and integrates new memories into a network of knowledge
  • (not long term storage)
76
Q

Sub- cortical structures - within forebrain

A
  • areas of the forebrain housed under the cerebral cortex near the very centre of the brain
  • thalamus, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, amygdala and hippocampus
77
Q

Amygdala - within forebrain

A
  • part of limbic system
  • located at tip of each horn of the hippocampus
  • central role in emotional processing and memory, particularly fear
78
Q

Limbic system

A
  • group of forebrain structures:

- hippocampus, amygdala and hypothalamus

79
Q

Cerebral cortex and lobes

A
  • 4 major lobes of the cerebral cortex are the occipital love, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, frontal lobe
80
Q

Corpus collosum

A
  • thick band of nerve fibres
  • connects large areas of cerebral cortex in each side of brain
  • supports communication of information across the hemispheres
81
Q

Occipital lobe

A
  • region of cerebral cortex whose functions include processing informations about touch
82
Q

Somatosensory cortex

A
  • outermost layer of the parietal lobe area

- containing a representation of the body map

83
Q

Left and right hemisphere within cortex

A
  • both sides work together

- left- sequences right- spatial arrangement

84
Q

Neuropsychology (lesion methods)

A
  • investigating brain- behaviour relationships by studying the effects of localised brain damage (can be acquired by head injury, stroke)
85
Q

Brocas aphasia

A
  • effortful speech

- short, ungrammatical phrases

86
Q

Mirror neurons

A
  • cells that are active when performing an action oneself or when observing the same action performed by another
87
Q

Temporal lobe

A
  • a region of the cerebral cortex responsible for hearing and language
  • semantic knowledge
88
Q

Frontal lobe

A
  • region of the cerebral cortex that has specialised areas for movement, abstract thinking, planning, memory and judgement
89
Q

Association areas

A
  • areas of the cerebral cortex

- composed of neurons that help provide sense and meaning to information registered in the cortex

90
Q

Primary visual cortex

A
  • outermost layer of the occipital lobe area

- visual information is processed

91
Q

Primary auditory cortex

A
  • outermost layer of the temporal lobe

- where auditory information is processed

92
Q

How can a person acquire brain damage

A
  • traumatic head injury
  • stroke (haemorrhage)
  • neurodegenerative disorders (Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s)
  • viral infection (HIV)
93
Q

Frontal lobotomy

A
  • moniz develops as treatment for mental illness

- destroys frontal lobes or damages connections to limbic system

94
Q

Gene and chromosomes

A

Gene- the unit of hereditary information transmission

Chromosomes- strands of DNA wound around each other in a double- helix configuration (every cell has 23 pairs)

95
Q

Epigenetics

A

The mechanisms of interaction between the environment and genes

96
Q

Genetic methylation

A
  • a mechanism that silences a gene and is believed to play a major role in long-term changes that shape our development
97
Q

Heritability

A
  • a measure of the variability of behavioural traits among individuals that can be accounted for by genetic factors
98
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

A device used to record electrical activity in the brain

99
Q

Computerised axial tomography

A
  • a technique that combines multiple X-ray photographs into a single image
100
Q

Magnetic reasonable imaging (MRI)

A
  • a technique that uses a powerful magnet to cause charged molecules in soft tissue to realign to produce measureable field distortions
101
Q

Position emission tomography (PET)

A
  • a technique that uses radioactive markers to measure blood flow in the brain
102
Q

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A
  • a technique that uses a powerful magnet to cause haemoglobin molecules to realign to measure blood flow in the brain

Psychology 1A (3 decks)

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