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Psychology Stage 2 > Cognitive Neuroscience > Flashcards

Cognitive Neuroscience Flashcards

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1
Q

Cognition

A

Interpretation of transformation of recently acquired or stored information

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2
Q

Phrenology

A

Proposed that activation of brain areas makes them expand, which results in changes of skull shape. According to phrenology functions (traits) are highly localised – localisationist’s view

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3
Q

What did Marie-Jean-Pierre Flourens do?

A

Lesioned various parts of pigeon brains and didn’t find evidence of specific behavioural deficits due to any of the lesions
He concluded that behavioural abilities are made by interactions of areas from the entire brain - aggregate field theory

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4
Q

What did John Hughlings Jackson do?

A

Monitored epilepsy patients and realised that seizures often resulted in ordered jerks of the muscles. This led to the idea of a topographic organisation of muscle representation in the cortex - localisationist view

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5
Q

The neurone doctrine

A

Neurones are separate units

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6
Q

What did Golgi and Cajal win a Nobel prize for in 1906?

A

Arguing that the nervous system is made up of discrete individual cells (neurone doctrine)

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7
Q

Glial cells

A

Oligodendrocytes myelinate axons in the brain and spinal cord
Schwann cells myelinate axons in the periphery of the body
There are more glial cells in the brain than there are neurons

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8
Q

What functions do glial cells serve?

A

Getting nutrients from the blood
Maintaining the blood-brain barrier
Stop toxins from entering the brain and insulator cells

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9
Q

Briefly summarise the role of each part of the neurone

A

Dendrites receive the message
The soma (cell body) converts the message
The axon sends the message

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10
Q

Resting membrane potential

A

Resting potential is -70 mV
The neurone is negatively charged on the inside because it contains a lot of proteins and most proteins are negatively charged, it also has a pump

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11
Q

What is the role of the sodium-potassium pump?

A

Potassium tries to get out and sodium tries to get in and the pump works to maintain this negative energy

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12
Q

Synaptic transmission

A

At the synapse the action potential hits the membrane of the axon terminal, and it depolarises the membrane
Makes the inside more positive, which causes channels to open so calcium ions flow into the cell
Vesicles that contain neurotransmitter, once calcium binds with them they can then bind with the cell membrane then are able to release their neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
Neurotransmitter binds with receptor dendrite
Channels on postsynaptic terminal open which means sodium can now enter the postsynaptic cell which could trigger an action potential which would then move to the next neurone

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13
Q

Central nervous system

A

The brain
Spinal cord

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14
Q

Functional neurosurgery

A

Altering the activity of a brain area by either using ablation (removing), electrical or pharmacological methods to establish overall more normal patient function

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15
Q

Single dissociation

A

An acquired disability that affects only one are of functioning without impairing any other area of functioning

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16
Q

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A

Low-level currents that result in action potential under the anodes
Works to activate or inactivate parts of the brain and do this whilst subjects perform a certain task to see what the effect of this is on their functioning

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17
Q

Attention

A

The process by which the mind chooses from among the various stimuli that strike the senses at any moment

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18
Q

Dichotic listening

A

When you get one stimulus in one ear and a different one in the other and you have to ignore one of the stimuli depending on which stimuli you need to focus on

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19
Q

Exogenous attention

A

Transient, bottom-up, automatic

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20
Q

Endogenous attention

A

Sustained, top-down, voluntary

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21
Q

Covert attention

A

When you fixate somewhere and attend elsewhere

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22
Q

Overt attention

A

When you fixate and attend in the same place

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23
Q

Spatial attention

A

Attention to a specific location in space, irrespective of what is present at that location

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24
Q

Feature based attention

A

Attention to specific stimulus features irrespective of where they are in our environment

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25
Q

Object based attention

A

Attending to a whole object, even if only parts are relevant

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26
Q

What was Thales’ monistic perspective?

A

That the flesh and blood brain produces thoughts
That the conscious mind is a product of the brains physical activity and not separate from it

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27
Q

What is Franz Joseph Gall known for?

A

Believed innate functions were localised in specific brain regions in the cerebral cortex
Hypothesised that if a person used a specific faculty more then that part of the brain would grow and there would be a bump in the overlying skull so Gall believed that by carefully analysing a skull he could understand the personality of a person - he called this technique anatomical personology
This idea was later coined as phrenology

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28
Q

What is Flourens known for?

A

The first to show that certain parts of the brain were responsible for certain functions by destroying parts of pigeon and rabbit brains to observe what happened
Concluded advanced abilities like memory are more scattered throughout the brain

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29
Q

What is aggregate field theory?

A

The idea that the whole brain participates in behaviour

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30
Q

Who coined the localisationist view of the brain?

A

John Hughlings Jackson

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31
Q

what is the homunculus?

A

topographic organisation of muscle representation in the cortex

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32
Q

Broca’s area

A

language production

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33
Q

Wernicke’s area

A

language comprehension

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34
Q

the neuron doctrine

A

neuro system is made up of discrete individual cells

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35
Q

who won a Nobel prize in 1906 for the neuron doctrine?

A

Golgi and Cajal

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36
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

myelinate axons in the brain and spinal cord

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37
Q

schwann cells

A

myelinate cells in the periphery of the body

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38
Q

microglial cells

A

immune response in the brain

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39
Q

glial cells

A

more glial cells than neurons in the brain, get nutrients from the blood and maintain the blood brain barrier

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40
Q

soma

A

cell body

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41
Q

resting membrane potential

A

-70mV

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42
Q

where is the neuron more negative when resting?

A

inside the neuron, made more positive with action potential

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43
Q

which is the first channel to open during action potential?

A

sodium ion channels

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44
Q

which ions bind to the vesicles in the synapse?

A

calcium ions

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45
Q

coronal brain section

A

view from side of the brain

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46
Q

sagittal brain section

A

view from top of the brain

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47
Q

caudal

A

posterior (back of the brain)

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48
Q

dorsal

A

superior (top of the brain)

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49
Q

rostral

A

anterior (front of the brain

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50
Q

ventral

A

inferior (bottom of the brain)

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51
Q

gyri

A

wrinkles in the brain

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52
Q

how does MRI distinguish white and grey matter?

A

uses differences in the amount of water and fatty tissue in the brain

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53
Q

Posner’s Letter matching task

A

two letters on the screen and the participant has to press ‘same’ or ‘different’

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54
Q

findings of Posner’s letter matching task

A

processing time differs depending on which letters are represented, Posner argued that the different latencies represented the degree of processing required to do the letter matching task, stimulus identity representations are activated first, phonetic representations second and categorisations are last

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55
Q

neurology

A

understanding the brain based on brain damage and disorders

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56
Q

raster plot

A

plot of action potentials, recorded as time after an external event, every time an action potential is recorded you mark it on the plot

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57
Q

alzheimer’s disease

A

degenerative, tangles and plaques in limbic and temporo-parietal cortex

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58
Q

Parkinson’s disease

A

degenerative, loss of dopaminergic neurons

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59
Q

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A

electrodes attached to the head to measure electrical activity in the brain - relatively cheap, non-invasive, fairly good signal

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60
Q

Event related potentials (ERP)

A

average of EEG recordings which may allow a pattern from a stimulus to appear

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61
Q

optogenetics

A

using light to manipulate neuronal activity

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62
Q

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A

inducing a magnetic field into the brain to excite the underlying tissues - can create virtual lesions, can excite or inhibit certain areas of the brain

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63
Q

how does MRI work?

A

hydrogen are disturbed by a signal and are flipped, then this is stopped and we measure how long it takes for them to flip back, different time depending on whether it is white or grey matter, used to plot the brain

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64
Q

what does BOLD stand for?

A

blood oxygen-level dependent

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65
Q

Feature based attention

A

Ability to attend to specific features, across the visual space

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66
Q

Object based attention

A

Attention to sub parts of an object, ensures that other parts of that object are automatically better processed as well

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67
Q

Attention

A

Attention is the process by which the mind chooses from among the various stimuli that strike the senses at any given moment.

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68
Q

Astrocytes

A

Large glial cells that create the blood brain barrier

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69
Q

Dichotic listening task

A

One stream of information in one ear and another stream of information being played in the other

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70
Q

Evidence for early selection

A
  • auditory cortical responses are affected by attention, e.g. the cat, when it pays attention to the mouse the response to the sound being played is not as big
  • auditory brainstem responses are not affected by attention
  • dichotic listening task, less response of ERP to the unattended input, modulated by attention as person is listening to the other input
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71
Q

otoacoustic emissions

A

sound that your ear reflects back out after hearing something

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72
Q

exogenous attention

A

transient, bottom-up (something in the external world), automatic

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73
Q

endogenous attention

A

sustained, top-down (willful act by ourselves), voluntary

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74
Q

ERP evidence for endogenous visuo-spatial attention

A

when the cue and the target match we get a big signal from attending to the right area that they chose to attend to - also evidence for early selection

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75
Q

What do single cell electrophysiology experiments show about spatial attention?

A

Neurons fire more when we attend to the receptive field

76
Q

Retinotopic mapping

A

How is how the retina is represented across the surface of our brain, the orderly representation of the external world in the cortex

77
Q

Biased competition model of attention

A

Neurons compete for processing resources. Feedback from ‘higher areas’ selectively boosts those neurons that process stimuli at the attended location. These in turn suppress their competitors. Biased competition is an example how attention selectively filters incoming information.

78
Q

What are the two main visual processing pathways in humans?

A

Ventral pathway (goes to inferior temporal lobe) and dorsal pathway (goes to posterior parietal)

79
Q

What are the feature maps in the visual cortex?

A

Describes that specific features are represented in specific areas

80
Q

fMRI evidence for feature selective attention in different human brain areas

A

When attending to motion, areas that process motion show more activity

81
Q

Evidence for object based attention representation in the brain

A

When someone is told to attend to a certain object if there is an invalid cue on the same object it is slower than a valid cue on the right object but faster than if it is invalid cue and not on the same object

82
Q

Why do we need spatial working memory?

A

To remember where he cue has told us to attend to

83
Q

What does a response after cue offset mean?

A

Delineates the attentional control network

84
Q

What does response related to stimulus onset mean?

A

Delineates areas activated by stimulus and task

85
Q

Which brain regions is the top-down attentional network in?

A

Fronto-parietal network with superior parietal lobule and the frontal eye field

86
Q

Which brain areas are involved in the bottom-up network for novelty and attentional reorienting?

A

Temporo-parietal junction and ventral frontal cortex

87
Q

Parts of the monkey attentional network

A

Frontal eye field (motor)
Posterior parietal cortex (attention)
Primary visual cortex (sensory)

88
Q

Which brain area is involved in directing attention to what is relevant to us, early visual processing?

A

Superior colliculus

89
Q

Which brain region does top-down attention reside?

A

Posterior parietal

90
Q

Which region is the frontal eye field in?

A

Superior frontal cortex

91
Q

What does extinction mean?

A

If you wiggle your fingers someone with extinction will only point to one side that is more dominantly processed for them -imbalanced perception

92
Q

What does neglect mean?

A

People with neglect may ignore one side of their surroundings completely and not perceive it at all

93
Q

Unilateral spatial neglect

A

When someone doesn’t perceive or even have a representation of half of their world

94
Q

Why is the phenomenon extinction named that?

A

Because the presence of a stimulus in one side of their visual field causes the other stimulus in the other side to be extinguished from awareness

95
Q

Neuropsychological test for neglect or extinction?

A

Line bisection test
Redrawing an image
Circling Os or Cs
Gaze bias - people with extinction look all at one side

96
Q

Declarative/ explicit memory

A

Something we can talk about
Events (episodic memory)
Facts (semantic memory)

97
Q

Nondeclarative/ implicit memory

A

Procedural memory
Perceptual priming
Classical conditioning
Non associative learning

98
Q

Sensory memory

A

Iconic (visual)
Echoic (auditory)

99
Q

How long is the capacity of our echoic memory?

A

Around 12 seconds - evidence from measurements showing no surprise after a 12 seconds because there is no automatic memory of the deviant sound anymore

100
Q

The hierarchal (serial) modal memory

A

Sensory input
Sensory register
(Attention)
Short term memory
(Rehearsal)
Long term memory

Atkinson and Shiffrin modal model

101
Q

Working memory model

A

Proposed by Baddeley and Hitch
Visuospatial sketch pad
Central executive
Phonological loop

102
Q

Brain areas in phonological loop:

A

BA44 - Broca’s area 44
Supramarginal gyrus (part of higher auditory cortex)

103
Q

Visual spatial sketchpad

A

Mostly located in right hemisphere, frontal and parietal cortex

104
Q

Evidence of how people with no hippocampus perform on procedural learning

A

They show faster reaction times in a procedural task as it is repeated more even if they can’t remember doing it

105
Q

Priming

A

Change in the response to a stimulus, or in the ability to identify a stimulus, following prior exposure to that stimulus

106
Q

Fornix

A

Big loop of fibre bundles that helps to connect the different parts of the brain

107
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

Can’t make new long term memories

108
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

Can’t remember things from the past, most recent things usually forgotten first

109
Q

Patient HM

A

Epilepsy
Hippocampus removed
Can no longer form new memories

110
Q

Study with monkeys on delayed non-match to sample

A

Have to pick which one doesn’t match from remembering the first item
With no lesion the monkey performs the task well
Hippocampus removed doesn’t perform as well
With multiple lesions the effects start earlier and deficit is worse

111
Q

Lesions that cause severe anterograde amnesia

A

Dorso medial nucleus of thalamus
Mammillary bodies

112
Q

Korsakoff syndrome

A

Vitamin B1 deficiency which damages dorsomedial nucleus of the thalamus and the mammillary bodies and causes amnesia

113
Q

Critique of modal memory model

A

Short term memory not required for long term memory
Patient with severe STM deficits retained significant LTM
But did still have some STM digit spam so some STM may be intact

114
Q

Patient EE

A

Short term memory deficits
Digit span of 1-2
Due to a tumour
Retained LTM

115
Q

Evidence of different storage for semantic and episodic memory

A

HM could still draw his old flat so suggests different storage for semantic and episodic memory

116
Q

Patient KC

A

Anterograde and retrograde amnesia
Lesions found in many parts of the brain but they were particularly prominent in the medial temporal lobes

Despite the dense episodic and source amnesia, K.C. was still able to learn semantic facts, even if at a slower pace. His forgetting rate was similar to controls

117
Q

Familiarity

A

a form of memory stored in and around the entorhinal cortex

118
Q

Evidence of familiarity in the entorhinal cortex

A

More activity in fMRI during encoding shows the participant will then be more familiar with that item
If they have low confidence on whether they’ve seen the item or not there was low activity during encoding

119
Q

What is encoded in the entorhinal cortex?

A

Familiarity

120
Q

Process of encoding episodic memory

A

Starts form association areas in the frontal, temporal and parietal lobes
Where = parahippocampal
What = perirhenal cortex
Then to entorhinal cortex
Then hippocampal complex
Can then be bound together into an episodic memory

121
Q

Which area do words activate during encoding?

A

Left frontal cortex

122
Q

Which areas do nameable objects activate during encoding?

A

Left and right frontal cortex

123
Q

Which area do faces activate during encoding?

A

Primarily the right frontal cortex

124
Q

Apperception agnosia

A

Can say what the object is but can’t replicate (draw)it

125
Q

Associative agnosia

A

Can’t identify the object so semantic representation is gone but can draw the item

126
Q

Long term potentiation

A

Post synaptic cell becomes depolarised by AMPA receptors and the magnesium is kicked out of the NMDA receptor so the calcium can flow into the cell

127
Q

Difference between associative and non-associative LTP

A

If there is long term potentiation in pathway 2 but not pathway 1 that is non-associative
If LTP is in both then it is associative

128
Q

Long term potentiation

A

When neuronal connections get stronger

129
Q

Long term depression

A

When neuronal connections get weaker

130
Q

Place cells

A

Cells in the hippocampus that are involved in spatial recognition

131
Q

Evidence of place cells

A

Recorded in rats as different place cells activate when the rat is in a specific area
If NMDA receptors are eliminated in the hippocampus of mice they learn a little in the water maze but are never as good as the control with the NMDA receptors intact

132
Q

What happens when LTP is induced in mice performing the water maze task?

A

The excitatory potential is a lot larger and they are faster at escaping the water and learn well where the platform is but when they lack the NMDA receptors they can’t build a stable spatial representation

133
Q

Frontal cortex

A

Executive
Motor function
Goal orientated behaviour

134
Q

Parietal lobe

A

Somatosensation
Spatial processing and orienting
Decision making
Attention

135
Q

Temporal lobe

A

Audition
High level object recognition

136
Q

Occipital lobe

A

Vision

137
Q

The limbic system

A

the amygdala, hippocampus, thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, and cingulate gyrus

138
Q

Central occipital lobe

A

Midline of the back of the brain
Early visual areas (V1,V2,V3)

139
Q

Left and right occipital lobe

A

Mid level visual areas (V4,V5)

140
Q

Cochlear nucleus

A

Part of the auditory brain stem
First processing stage of auditory processing after the ear

141
Q

Primary auditory area (A1)

A

N1 EEG signal shows difference in Dichotic listening task with attention (M20-50 when measure with MEG)

142
Q

Primary visual cortex (V1) and secondary visual cortex (V2)

A

Show spiking difference when monkeys attend to the neurons receptive field compare to attend away

143
Q

V1-V7 visual areas

A

Show topographic organisation (retinotopy)

144
Q

What does V4 mid level visual area do?

A

Form, colour, basic shape processing
Where biased competition model of attention was originally tested and evidence supported the model

145
Q

Visual pathways

A

Lateral geniculate body
Dorsal pathway
Ventral pathway

146
Q

Dorsal pathway (visual pathway)

A

posterior parietal cortex
spatial/motion processing
areas - V5 and medial superior temporal area

147
Q

Ventral pathway (visual pathway)

A

temporal, inferior temporal cortex
form, colour and object processing
areas V4 and unimodal visual association area (TEO)

148
Q

What area of the brain is involved in motion processing?

A

Middle temporal area

149
Q

Which area is involved in colour processing?

A

Area V4
fMRI experiments show evidence for feature selective attention effects in this area

150
Q

What is area V4 involved in with attention?

A

Colour processing (feature based attention)
Object based attention
Evidence for both of these through fMRI

151
Q

Subcortical attentional network

A

Pulvinar nucleus (part of the thalamus
Superior colliculus (brain stem part of attentional network)
Both show strong attention dependent activation in speaking and fMRI activity

152
Q

Cortical (top down) attentional network

A

These areas are active when subjects attend to a location, even when there is no stimulus present, attentional control areas
Dorsolateral frontal cortex
Inferior parietal lobule (cortex)
Superior temporal sulcus
Posterior cingulate cortex
Medial frontal cortex
Intraparietal sulcus
Frontal eye field

153
Q

Bottom-up attentional network

A

Temporo-parietal junction
Ventral frontal cortex (inferior/medial frontal gyrus)

154
Q

Phonological loop areas

A

Left inferior frontal gyrus
Supramarginal gyrus
(Areas 44,40)

155
Q

Visuospatial sketchpad areas

A

lateral parietal
inferior frontal
occipital areas

156
Q

Major hippocampal inputs

A

Entorhinal cortex
(Which also has inputs from perirhinal and parahippocampal cortex

157
Q

Mamillary bodies

A

subcortical area with inputs to the
hippocampal formation), often damaged in long term
alcoholics, due to vitamin B1 deficiency

158
Q

Where pathway areas

A

Occipitoparietal
Visual areas
To parietal
To parahippocampal
To entorhinal cortex

159
Q

What pathway areas

A

Occipitotemporal
Visual areas
To temporal to perirhinal
To entorhinal

160
Q

Procedural memory area

A

Basal ganglia

161
Q

Familiarity area

A

Entorhinal cortex

162
Q

Storage area of semantic knowledge

A

Anterior inferior
temporal: function and meaning of objects

Posterior inferior temporal: fusing of low-level stimulus features into coherent wholes

163
Q

Amygdala

A

almond shaped nucleus in the medial temporal lobe involved in emotional processing (fear,
value, anger, …)

164
Q

Orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)

A

part of the frontal (ventral
parts) cortex, which is involved in value estimation and comparison. Also involved in (social) decision making and evaluation of social situations. Also involved in processing of angry faces.

165
Q

areas involved in implicit bias

A

dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, ventrolateral prefrontal cortex

166
Q

Anterior cingulate cortex

A

involved in processing of anger (angry faces)

167
Q

Which areas are active during sadness?

A

Amygdala, right temporal pole

168
Q

Which areas process disgust?

A

Insula cortex, anterior cingulate cortex

169
Q

medial prefrontal cortex

A

Involved in self referential processing
also idling, daydreaming, resting state network

170
Q

resting state network brain areas

A

dorsal and ventral medial frontal cortex, posterior medial cortex, posterior lateral cortices

171
Q

orbitofrontal cortex

A

utilization behaviour, self monitoring
in social environments (see also above in relation to
value estimates, somatic markers, ….)

172
Q

theory of mind brain area

A

right temporo-parietal junction (but see
also in relation to bottom up attention)

173
Q

Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC)

A

mostly involved in
planning, cognitive control, working memory. As such it contributes to social cognition, but does not have a specialized role

174
Q

Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC)

A

error detection, rule selection, social evaluation, reward anticipation, positive self esteem

175
Q

nucleus accumbens

A

reward processing

176
Q

Superior temporal sulcus (STS)

A

various multimodal functions, attention, tracking of ‘others’ actions/intention.

177
Q

cerebellum

A

integrates information about the body and motor commands, and it modifies motor outflow to effect smooth, coordinated movements

178
Q

thalamus

A

relay station for almost all sensory information

179
Q

Patient SM

A

Amygdala lesions
Patient S.M. had selective deficits to judge whether a fearful expression was displayed.
Patient S.M. had no problem rating any of the other emotional expressions.
Patient S.M. had selective deficits also in generating an image of fearful expressions.

180
Q

Who studied emotions and claimed certain universal ones?

A

Ekman and Friesen

181
Q

Ekman and Friesen: The basic emotions

A

happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, disgust, and fear

182
Q

James Lange theory

A

argues that perception triggers bodily emotional responses, which then trigger the emotional perception

183
Q

Cannon bard theory

A

Emotional perception first then emotional experience (facial expressions)

184
Q

Which task did Damasio develop?

A

Gambling card task where skin conductance was measured

185
Q

somatic marker hypothesis

A

states that emotional information, in the form of physiological arousal, is needed to guide decision making

186
Q

The cortical (slow/high) road into the amygdala

A

entails high level processing of information, where most likely conscious awareness of e.g. danger triggers fear and the associated responses

187
Q

The subcortical low road into amygdala

A

allows for fast processing of potential danger/benefit, and physical reactions can be triggered before an awareness of and emotion

Psychology Stage 2 (6 decks)

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