Cognitive Learning Flashcards
Learning
A process by which knowledge or behaviour changes as a result of experience. It is a relatively permanent change and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation. It is a result of physical and chemical changes in the brain (changes to chemical aspects of neurotransmission ex. long-term potentiation and changes to structural aspects of neurons ex. more receptor sites or thicker structure increases the sensitivity of post-synaptic dendrites).
How Do We Learn?
1) By Association
—> Classical Conditioning
—> Operant Conditioning
2) By Cognition
—> Mental Representation of Events
3) By Observation
—> Watching Others
Associative Learning
Certain events (usually two) occur together.
Classical Conditioning
Two stimuli occur together, involuntary (usually physiological) response, for example, can opener = food which leads to drooling.
Operant Conditioning
The relationship between voluntary behaviour and consequence, for example, doing chores = allowance (reward).
Ivan Pavlov MD
Nobel prize on digestion but best known for Pavlov’s Dogs.
4 Elements of Classical Conditioning
1) Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
2) Unconditioned Response (UR)
3) Conditioned Stimulus/Neutral Stimulus (CS)
4) Conditioned Response (CR)
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
A stimulus that naturally elicits a response.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
The natural response to a stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus/Neutral Stimulus (CS)
An originally neutral stimulus that, through repeated pairing, will eventually elicit a response.
Conditioned Response (CR)
A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.
Intensity
The strength of association depends on the vividness of the stimuli. If particularly vivid, several pairings are not necessary.
Generalization
Stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus can elicit the conditioned response.
Discrimination
Learn not to respond to similar stimuli.
Extinction
Conditioned stimulus no longer elicits conditioned response if presented alone.
Spontaneous Recovery
When the conditioned response suddenly reappears after some time from the conditioned stimulus being removed. Response is weaker than before.
Emotional Response
Preparedness and fear conditioning (evolutionary role).
Little Albert (John B. Watson)
A happy baby who was conditioned to fear small, furry animals.
Taste Aversions
Acquired dislike of a food/drink after it is paired with an illness.
Drug Tolerance
Decreased reaction that occurs with the repeated use of a drug.
Compensatory Response
When the body does the opposite effect of the drug in order to compensate for the expected effect. Leads to drug tolerance and overdosing.
Thorndike (1898)
Measured the time it took cats to learn to escape from puzzle boxes.
Law of Effect
Behaviour is a function of consequences (satisfiers and annoyers).
ABCs
Antecedent, behaviour, and consequence (the outcome).
Antecedent
The conditions in which your behaviour leads to the consequence.
B. F. Skinner and Skinner Boxes (1930s)
Reward (food) is only given when the lever is pulled when the light is lit. Reinforcement and punishment.
Reinforcement
Consequence that increases the likelihood that behaviour will occur again. Can be positive (adds something pleasant) or negative (takes something negative away).
Punishment
Consequence that decreases the likelihood that behavior will occur again. Can be positive (adds something negative) or negative (takes something positive away).
Shaping
Encouraging a new behaviour by reinforcing successive approximations. Gradual changes.
Reinforcement Schedules
How often and under what circumstances does the individual receive the reinforcement or punishment. Can be continuous or partial.
Continuous Reinforcement Schedules
Rewarding or punishing after the behaviour is done every time. Easy to maintain behaviour but can easily diminish if the reward is missed once.
Partial Reinforcement Schedules
Rewarding or punishing sometimes if the behaviour is done.
Fixed Ratio
Reinforce behaviour after a set number of responses (based on actions).
Variable Ratio
Reinforce behaviour after an unpredictable number or responses (based on actions). Most effective in sustaining behaviour.
Fixed Interval
Reinforce behaviour after a set amount of time (based on time).
Variable Interval
Reinforce behaviour after an unpredictable amount of time (based on time).
Associative Learning and Behaviourism
Focus on observable behaviour (no mental processes). We can condition anyone to be anything despite genetics, race, and background. Only learning shapes who we are. Learning as a passive response to environmental stimuli (we are not actively involved in what we are learning).
Cognitive Revolution
1) Insight Learning
—> Koehler (set up puzzles for chimps ex. hanging a banana out of reach).
—> Didn’t get the banana by trial and error, they thought through the problem and came up with a solution.
—> Developed insight (more than learning from reward).
2) Latent Learning
—> Tolman (rats learn mazes without reward. Rats that had the opportunity to go through the maze went through it faster than rats that didn’t get the opportunity when a reward was present).
3) Superstitious Conditioning
—> Believing that x caused y even though there isn’t any association.
Observational Learning/Social Learning
Learning by observing and imitating others.
Bobo Doll Study
1) Adult and child in a room.
2) Adult punches/does not punch Bobo doll.
3) Child is made frustrated.
4) Child is left in a room with a Bobo doll.
5) Child mimics the adult’s actions and phrases.
Vicarious Reinforcement and Punishment
If you see someone rewarded or punished for a certain action, it can affect whether or not you do the action.
Mirror Neurons
Fires when an animal performs an action and when the animal observes someone else performing the same action.
Memory
The capacity to store and retrieve information in order to facilitate learning. The process of maintaining information over time.
Encoding
The process of taking information from the world, including our internal thoughts and feelings, and converting it to memories.
Storage
The maintenance of information in the brain for later access.
Retrieval
The process of bringing to mind previously encoded and stored information.
Duration
How long information is stored.
Capacity
How much information is stored.
Multistore Model of Memory
A model proposing that information flows from our senses through three storage levels in memory, sensory, short term, and long term.
Sensory Memory
A storage level of memory that holds sensory information on the order of milliseconds to seconds (very brief, high capacity, very detailed, and basic sensory information).
Short-Term Memory
A storage level of memory where information can be held briefly, from seconds to less than a minute (brief, limited capacity, less detailed, and elaborated concepts). Only the information we pay attention to is committed into short-term memory (STM). This is a fraction of the information in our environment. If not in use, we will forget this information in around 20 to 30 seconds. It is known as working memory and has a limited capacity (we can hold 5 to 9 pieces of information in the mind at one time OR we can hold 3 to 5 pieces of information in the mind at one time).
Long-Term Memory
A storage level of memory where information can be held for hours to many years and potentially a lifetime (not brief, unlimited capacity, least detailed, and very complicated). Is unlimited in its capacity and duration (can store almost anything for an infinite amount of time).
Iconic Memory
A rapidly decaying store of visual sensory information. Sensory memory in vision (less than 1 second).
Echoic Memory
A rapidly decaying store of auditory sensory information. Sensory memory in hearing (up to 4 seconds). Longer than the visual form.
Chunking
The process of grouping stimuli together in chunks in working memory to increase the amount of information stored in short-term memory (the grouping of information in some meaningful way).
Working Memory
A component of memory that allows for both the short-term storage and manipulation of information in real time.
Rehearsal
The holding of information in the brain through mental repetition (actively holding information in working memory).
Amnesia
The loss of memory due to brain damage or trauma.
Anterograde Amnesia
The inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory, preventing new long-term memories from forming.
Retrograde Amnesia
A form of amnesia in which access to memories prior to brain damage is impaired, but the individual can store new experiences in long-term memory.
Levels of Processing
The multiple levels at which encoding can occur ranging from shallow to deep.
Shallow Encoding/Processing
Encoding based on sensory characteristics such as how something looks or sounds. Encoding superficial properties of a stimulus, such as look or sound.
Deep Encoding/Processing
Encoding based on an event’s meaning as well as connections between the new event and past experience. Encoding based on meaning and connections with past experience. Activates and creates connections between old and new information (elaboration). Involves the strengthening of complex neural networks. Involves additional brain regions ex. self-referential encoding.
Self-Referential Encoding
Encoding based on an event’s relation to our self-concept which leads to enhanced memory for the event.
Mnemonics
A device such as a pattern of letters or ideas that assists in remembering something.
Method of Loci
A memory strategy or technique that uses visualizations of familiar spatial environments to enhance the recall of information.
Explicit/Declarative Memory
A form of memory that involves intentional and conscious remembering. Memory with conscious recall ex. episodic memory and semantic memory.
Implicit/Non-Declarative Memory
A form of memory that occurs without intentional recollection or awareness and can be measured indirectly through the influence of prior learning on behaviour. Memory without conscious recall ex. procedural memory, conditioning, and priming.
Procedural Memory
A type of implicit memory related to the acquisition of skills (procedures and actions).
Priming
The increased ability to process a stimulus because of previous exposure. Exposure to a stimulus influences responses to a subsequent stimulus. Activates a web of associations in our mind ex. pepper and salt. Influences behaviour outside of awareness.
Affective Conditioning
A form of conditioning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires positive or negative value.
Episodic Memory
The explicit recollection of personal experience that requires piecing together the elements of that time and place (remembering) (events experienced). Controlled by the hippocampus.
Semantic Memory
Explicit memory supporting knowledge about the world including concepts and facts (knowing) (facts and knowledge). Controlled by the lateral and anterior temporal lobe.
Retrospective Memory
Memory for things we have done in the past.
Prospective Memory
Memory for things we need to do in the future.
Consolidation
The process whereby memory storage is integrated and becomes stable in the brain. The process of converting short-term memories to long-term memories in the brain. Cellular changes become more permanent (increase in receptor sites).
Reconsolidation
Reactivation of consolidation by retrieving a memory making the memory susceptible to change.
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
A mechanism that creates enduring synaptic connections which results in increased transmission between neurons (increase in the strength of synaptic connections when neurons fire together).
Flashbulb Memory
A vivid memory for an emotionally significant event thought to be permanent and detailed as if frozen in time like a photograph. Extremely vivid memories for emotionally significant events ex. people remembering everything on 911. Frequently recalled. Often inaccurate despite confidence in accuracy usually due to frequent recall.
Free Recall
Accessing information from memory without any cues to aid your retrieval.
Retrieval Cues
Information related to stored memories that helps bring the memories back to mind.
Cued Recall
A form of retrieval that is facilitated by providing information related to the stored memory.
Recognition
A form of retrieval that relies on identifying previously seen or experienced information.
Encoding Specificity Principle
The idea that retrieval is best when the present context re-creates the context in which information was initially encoded.
State-Dependent Retrieval
The increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same state during both encoding and retrieval.
Mood-Dependent Retrieval
The increased likelihood of remembering when a person is in the same mood during both encoding and retrieval.
Forgetting Curve
The retention of information over various delay times.
Trace Decay Theory
States that if a person does not access and use a memory, the memory trace will weaken or decay over time and will be less available for later retrieval.
Interference Theory
Forgetting in long-term memory is related not to the passage of time but to interference created by integrating new and old information in the brain as time passes.
Retroactive Interference
The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.
Proactive Interference
The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.
Positive Transfer
When old information can facilitate the learning of new information.
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
A failure to retrieve information despite confidence that it is stored in memory.
Motivated Forgetting
Willful forgetting of information so that it is less likely to be retrieved later.
Repression
A defense mechanism against remembering a traumatic event.
False Memory
The retrieval of an event that never occurred.
Misinformation Effect
The decreased accuracy of episodic memories because of information provided after the event. New information we’re exposed to can influence our memory for past events.
Imagination Inflation
The boost in confidence associated with imagining misleading information.
Source Memory
The ability to recall the context in which we acquired a memory.
Source Amnesia
Occurs when we cannot remember where our memories come from even though we remember the event.
Error of Source Monitoring
When we forget the source of our facts, for example, was it an article or a news feed.
Error of Reality Monitoring
When we forget if the event is real or imagined.
Infantile Amnesia
The inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories from the first few years of life.
Reminiscence Bump
A time of prominent memory making between adolescence and early adulthood.
Spacing Effect
The enhanced ability to remember information when encoding is distributed over time.
Stages of Memory
1) Encoding (Input)
2) Storage (Saved Information)
3) Retrieval (Output)
The Memory Process
Stimulus → Sensory Memory –Attention→ Short-Term Memory –Consolidation→ Long-Term Memory –Retrieval→ Short-Term Memory
Sperling’s Memory Task (1960)
12 letters are shown in a 4x3 grid for a 20th of a second. Each row was paired with a tone, high, medium, and low. If the participants were asked to recall the whole grid, only 3-4 letters could be recalled. If the participants were asked to recall only one row, they would have almost 100% accuracy.
Change Blindness
The blank screen between the two images makes it difficult to remember the differences between the two images.
Maintenance Rehearsal
Repeating the information over and over again.
Elaborative Rehearsal
Prolonging the exposure to information by figuring out its meaning or making it meaningful to yourself. More effective than maintenance rehearsal.
Conditioning
Forming associations with stimuli in the world.
Balcetis and Dale (2003)
Participants were asked to read a transcript of two people on a date. Half of the participants were asked to identify when the people were lying and the other half were asked to identify when the people were flirting. All participants were then shown a picture that can either look like a main looking down or the word liar in cursive. Only 15% of those who were primed with flirting only saw the word liar while 75% of those who were primed with lying saw the word liar.
Hebb Rule
Cells that fire together, wire together.
Visual/Structural Encoding
Encoding based on the image.
Acoustic/Phonemic Encoding
Encoding based on the sound.
Semantic Encoding
Encoding based on the meaning.
CREB Protein
Triggers genes involved in LTP and synaptic strengthening between neurons.
Effect of Sleep on Learning
Increases neural activity patterns of what we learned.
Reconstructive Memory
Memory is constructed at the time of encoding and recall. It is subject to distortions.
Schemas
Preconceptions about persons, objects, and events that can bias the way new information is interpreted ex. you may believe that you were served cake at a birthday party while in reality you were not.
Retellings
Biased towards who you’re telling it to.
Confirming or Disconfirming Feedback
Someone’s reactions to our retelling of information or an event can influence how we remember it.
Leading Questions
Misinformation effect.
Emotional Events
Are self-relevant and associated with arousal. Leads to deep processing of information. Stress hormones increase LTP and consolidation. Powerful stimuli serve as retrieval cues.
Loftus and Palmer (1974)
Showed people a car crash but altered the phrasing of the question when asking how fast the cars were going. When a more aggressive adjective was used, the estimated speed was higher than when a less aggressive adjective was used.
Selective Attention
Focus on unusual or arousing details of a crime impairs memory for other details.
Weapon Focus
Attention is drawn to the weapon at the expense of other information. Unusualness: weapons are unexpected, making them stand out. Emotion/Arousal: more likely to focus on emotional content.
Automatic Thinking
System 1. Fast, effortless, involuntary, unconscious, and unlimited. Allows us to use mental shortcuts to make decisions about the world (quick, intuitive answers).
Controlled Thinking
System 2. Slow, effortful, voluntary, conscious, and limited. Used a lot less often.
Stroop Effect
The tendency to experience difficulty naming a physical colour when it is used to spell the name of a different colour. Reading words is an automatic process. Identifying colours is a more controlled process. Automatic processing of the word interferes with attempts to identify the colour.
Ironic Effect of Mental Control
When we try to control something mental we are much more likely to fail than if we don’t put in as much effort ex. white bear thinking task.
Trying Not To Think About Something Involves
1) Intentional (controlled) search for distracters.
2) Automatic monitoring for occurrence of thought.
Ironic Effect
Controlled processes are more prone to disruption (the thought occurs more frequently).
Moral Intuitionist Model
Moral judgement is the result of quick, automatic evaluations (intuitions), not the deliberated outcome of some reasoning process.
Judgment and Decision Making
Automatic processing allows us to use mental shortcuts to make decisions about the world (quick, intuitive answers).
Heuristics
Useful for living in a complex world but can lead to errors.
Representativeness Heuristic
Judging the probability that an object or event belongs to a group or class based on how similar it is to a prototype we hold in our mind. Often involves base rate neglect (when stereotypes are very strong that we ignore actual probability).
Conjunction Fallacy
Assuming that the occurrence of two events happening together is more likely than the two events occurring independently.
Availability Heuristic
Judging the frequency of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind.
Probability Neglect
Ignoring the actual probability of something occurring.
Anchoring Effects
The tendency to rely on the first piece of information offered (the anchor) when making decisions.
Tversky and Khaneman (1974)
Asked participants to spin a wheel and then asked them if the percentage of UN countries that are African is higher or lower than that number. Those who spinned a 10 guessed 25% while those who spinned a 65 guessed 45%. Showcased the anchoring effect.
Framing Effects
The way we present or frame an issue can significantly affect our decisions and judgment. We are particularly averse to loss.
Confirmation Bias
The tendency to search for, evaluate, and recall information in a way that supports our preexisting beliefs or hypotheses. Done by searching for information, interpreting information, and remembering information.
Cognitive Explanation
We prioritize information that aligns with our pre-existing beliefs as a mental shortcut.
Motivational Explanation
We seek information that supports what we believe or want to believe to protect our self-esteem.
Santioso et al. (1990)
Told half of participants that being extraverted is better while the other half was told that being introverted is better. When asked to recall memories of being introverted or extraverted, people tend to recall more memories that matched which type was seen as being better (if being told that extraverted is better, people recalled more extraverted memories).
