cognitive approach: rm & ethics

Question 1

cognitive processing & reliability of cognitive processing studies w/ RM

Answer 1

cognitive processing: S&M (1997) - experiment & M&S (1957) - case study

reliability of cognitive processing: S&M (1997) - experiment & yuille and cutshall (1986) - interview

Question 2

characteristics of an experiment -

Answer 2

• allows researchers to manipulate variables under controlled conditions. this precision enables them to isolate specific cognitive functions and investigate how they affect behaviour. since, an IV is being manipulated and its effect on the DV is measured while other confounding variables are controlled, cause-effect relationship can be established.
• since they are highly standardised, they may be replicated. this allows other researchers to “redo” the experiment to attempt to get the same results. this means reliability of results can be tested.
• the data in an experiment is usually quantitative and can be statistically analysed for significance.
• participants are randomly allocated to groups to avoid the characteristics of the individuals influencing the results.

Question 3

cog processing & reliability of cog processing -
strack & mussweiler (1997) linked pointers

Answer 3

• The participants were allotted to two experimental conditions, which acted as an independent variable manipulated by the researchers. The independent variable consisted of two levels, the Low Anchor Condition (LAC) and the High Anchor Condition (HAC).
• The dependent variable is the participants’ estimation of Gandhi’s age at the time of his death.
• Experimental conditions were controlled through random assignment of participants to either LAC or HAC.
• The wording and context of the anchor questions were standardised to ensure consistency in the manipulation of the independent variable. By ensuring all these factors, the researchers could determine the cause-effect relationship between the IV & DV.

Question 4

evaluation of S&M (1997) -

Answer 4

• has ecological validity to some extent as the study’s scenario reflects a real-world cognitive phenomenon that is the anchoring effect which occurs while decision making, showing that cognitive biases manifest in everyday situations.
• the sample was relatively small (60) and specific (only German university students). this might limit the cultural generalisability as they may not be well aware of the context.
• sampling method used in the study was convenience sampling as the researcher’s collected data from the sample that was readily available from a German university. thus, making this sample less representative to the larger population as it might differ with various cultures, participant background. this can eventually further limit the generalisability.
• researchers did not control the individual differences, such as prior knowledge of Gandhi’s age, which can act as a confounding variable thus influencing their estimation.

Question 5

characteristics of a case study -

Answer 5

• it is utilised because it offers in-depth, detailed examinations of individual cases
• it provides rich qualitative data, offering insights into unique cognitive phenomena, individual differences, and the effects of various factors on cognitive functioning.
• case studies allow researchers to evaluate/observe conditions or behaviours in a real-world setting that may be difficult to replicate in a laboratory environment.

Question 6

milner & scoville (1957) aim:

Answer 6

to investigate the role of specific brain structures, particularly the hippocampus, in memory functioning.

Question 7

M&S (1957) case study of?

Answer 7

examined a patient known as HM; who had undergone surgical removal removal of parts of his medial temporal lobes, including the hippocampus, to alleviate severe epilepsy.

Question 8

M&S (1957) data collection -

Answer 8

• they conducted comprehensive neuropsychological assessments, including memory tests, to assess HM’s memory functioning before and after the surgery.
• they collected detailed observational and anecdotal data about HM’s daily life and experiences to understand the extent of his memory deficits.

Question 9

M&S (1957) results -

Answer 9

revealed profound anterograde amnesia in HM, characterized by his inability to form new memories after the surgery.

despite having intact short-term memory and some preserved long-term memories from before the surgery, HM exhibited severe impairments in encoding and consolidating new information into long-term memory.

this finding provided critical evidence for the crucial role of the hippocampus in memory consolidation processes.

Question 10

evaluation of M&S (1957) -

Answer 10

• provided an unparalleled depth of understanding by closely examining HM’s case over an extended period. allowed researchers to gather rich qualitative data about his cognitive functioning and memory deficits, offering detailed insights into the effects of hippocampal damage on memory.
• one major limitation of the study is its lack of generalizability to other individuals. HM’s case was unique, and his specific neurological condition resulting from surgery may not be representative of the broader population. therefore, findings from this single case study may not apply to individuals with different types or extents of brain damage.
• another limitation is the potential for subjectivity and bias in data collection and interpretation. as a case study relies heavily on qualitative data and observations, there is a risk of researcher bias influencing the findings.

Question 11

characteristics of an interview -

Answer 11

• a process of social interaction between an interviewer and interviewee with a specific purpose.
• it is a qualitative research approach.
• with the ability to ask probing questions, researchers can gather more detailed information about participants’ experiences.
• researchers can gain a better understanding of participants’ perspectives and the context in which their experiences occur, providing richer data for analysis.
• interviews can be structured, unstructured or semi-structured. some questions can be open-ended but some simply require yes/no answers.

Question 12

yuille & cutshall (1986) -

Answer 12

• researchers chose this incident to study because there were enough witnesses and there was forensic evidence available to confirm the stories of the eyewitnesses and allowed the researcher to analyse behaviour based on a real-life incident.
• during the interview, the researcher asked both open -ended and yes/no questions. first, participants gave their account of the incident, and then they were asked a fixed set of structured questions for a duration of 45-90 minutes. they were asked about their emotional state prior to the incident, about any negative side effects due to the event like sleeplessness or nightmares.

^ these open-ended questions allowed participants to give elaborate answers and allowed researchers to gain an in-depth account of their over all experience and its context.

Question 13

evaluation of Y&C (1986) -

Answer 13

• high ecological validity as it involved a real-life crime, a shooting in a gun shop. this setting increased the applicability of the findings to real-world situations. the use of a naturalistic setting allowed the researchers to observe eyewitness responses in a more realistic environment, which can provide insights that might not be captured in laboratory studies.
• conducted a longitudinal analysis, as the researchers reached out to the witnesses after months. this approach allowed for a more in-depth understanding of the stability of eyewitness memories over time.
• however, since the study involved a real shooting incident, it raises ethical concerns about asking the participants to recall the traumatic event. this could put them in distress.
• sample to population generalisability is not present to a large extent since the sample size was relatively small – 13. however, the case-to-case generalisability (transferability) is present up to a larger extent since traumatic crime experiences have similar effects on people irrespective of their background.

Question 14

emotion & cognition

Answer 14

brown & kulik (1977) - questionnaire & sharot et al (2007) - quasi experiment

Question 15

characteristics of a questionnaire -

Answer 15

• participants are given a pre-set number of questions to respond to and is a written self-report technique.
• it allows researchers to collect a large amount of data in a relatively short period of time.
• they are relatively cost effective, and can be easily administrated.

they are often completed privately and anonymously hence respondents are likely to be more honest.

• responses are analysed for patterns and trends. - - questionnaires can provide qualitative and quantitative data.
• they ask close ended questions which the participants can’t elaborate a lot on, and can also ask open ended questions that provide greater detail.

Question 16

brown & kulik (1977) -

Answer 16

• they were able to collect data from 80 people in a short period of time.
• asked a series of pre-set questions about the event including: how did you feel when you heard about the event? (to indicate the level of emotion), how important was this event in your life? (to indicate personal relevance), how often have you talked about this event? (to indicate rehearsal).

^ some were close ended questions which had straightforward answers that didn’t require much elaboration, however, some were also open ended.

Question 17

evaluation of B&K (1977)

Answer 17

• one of the first to attempt to empirically test the existence of flashbulb memories and has led to a large amount of further research.
• the procedure could be replicated, allowing us to determine if the results are reliable.
• the questionnaire was retrospective in nature - that is, it was self-reported data that relied on the memory of the individual and could not be verified for accuracy by the researchers.
• the actual level of surprise or emotion at the moment of the historical event cannot be measured or verified. it is not possible to actually measure the role of rehearsal in the creation of memories.
• when people are questioned about an important national event, they may say what they believe that they are supposed to say - a demand characteristic known as the social desirability effect.
• shows sampling bias; it is difficult to generalise the findings as only American males were studied. also had both gender and cultural bias.

Question 18

characteristics of a quasi experiment -

Answer 18

• resembles an experiment in many aspects, but lacks full control over the manipulation of the independent variable.
  ^ because the IV is not manipulated by the researcher, cause-effect inferences cannot be made.
• confounding variables are controlled.
• subjects are assigned to groups based on non-random criteria.
• most commonly used when it is impossible to randomly assign participants because the research is about some innate difference between the participants themselves.
• the data in a quasi-experiment is usually quantitative and can be statistically analysed for significance.

Question 19

sharot et al. (2007)

Answer 19

sample was recruited through advertisements. they provided informed consent and were compensated for their participation.

The independent variable was the participants proximity to WTC.

Participants’ brain activity was observed while they recalled the event, this was the dependent variable.

The memories of personal events from the summer served as a baseline of brain activity for evaluating the nature of 9/11 memories.

Question 20

evaluation of sharot et al. (2007) -

Answer 20

• utilised fMRI technology, allowing direct observation of neural activity during memory recall.
• use of controlled word cues (associated with either summer or 9/11) helped create distinct mental contexts for participants, enhancing internal validity.
• the comparison of amygdala activation between memories associated with 9/11 and unrelated summer events strengthens the internal validity by focusing on specific neural responses.
• sample size was relatively small (24 participants), which might limit the robustness of the findings. consisted of individuals who were in New York City on 9/11, which might limit the generalisability to broader populations or individuals with different experiences. The study aimed to bridge neuroscientific findings with real-life experiences, specifically focusing on memories related to a significant historical event (9/11).
• use of personal memories and associations adds an element of ecological validity.
• controlled setting of an fMRI scanner might not fully replicate the real-life conditions in which memories are typically recalled. this controlled environment could influence the way memories are accessed or recalled compared to natural, everyday situations.
• focus on a specific event (9/11) and its impact on memory formation provides valuable insights into how proximity to a traumatic event affects memory. the findings might be applicable to other significant and emotionally charged events.
• highlights correlations between amygdala activation and flashbulb memories but doesn’t establish causation. other factors influencing memory formation might have also contributed to the observed neural responses, putting to question if they were actually recalling the 9/11 incident or no, questioning the results of the study.
• asking participants to recall traumatic events like 9/11 raises ethical concerns regarding the potential emotional distress or re-traumatisation of participants, which researchers should handle sensitively.