cognitive approach: emotion and cognition

Question 1

theory about how emotion may affect one cognitive process

Answer 1

Flashbulb Memory Theory by Brown & Kulik (1977)

Question 2

Flashbulb Memory Theory by Brown & Kulik (1977)

Answer 2

Brown & Kulik believed that strong emotional experiences led to memories that are detailed, accurate, vivid, and resistant to forgetting

Question 3

special-mechanism hypothesis

Answer 3

argues for the existence of a special biological memory mechanism
when triggered by an event exceeding critical levels of surprise
creates a permanent record of the details and circumstances surrounding the experience

This implies that flashbulb memories have different characteristics than “ordinary memories”.

They also argued that memories are resistant to forgetting.

Special mechanism hypothesis that suggested that there were biological factors that led to the creation of these memories, although they did not know what those mechanisms were

This special mechanism hypothesis is activated when an event exceeds a critical level of surprise or emotion

Question 4

importance-driven model

Answer 4

This model emphasises that personal consequences determine the intensity of emotional reactions which affects the vividness of the memory
The researchers proposed that the event had to have personal meaning for the person

If there was the combination of a strong emotional response based on surprise and personal meaning, then the result is a flashbulb memory

Question 5

flashbulb memories and adrenaline

Answer 5

The amygdala in the brain controls our emotional responses, including fight or flight
When we experience an emotional event, we go into fight or flight, which includes the release of adrenaline
It could be this biological process that helps the formation of flashbulb memories

Question 6

adrenaline and amygdala

Answer 6

Researchers now know that when adrenaline reaches the brain it activates the amygdala in the limbic system to send a message that something important or dangerous has happened. The amygdala plays a key role in creating emotional memories.

Question 7

mcgaugh and Cahill study 1 A

Answer 7

to study the role of emotion in the creation of memories

Question 8

mcgaugh and Cahill study 1 M

Answer 8

Participants were presented with an emotional story about a car crash or a mundane story about a hospital drill
They were asked to recall the story 2 weeks later

Question 9

mcgaugh and Cahill study 1 R

Answer 9

participants in the emotional story condition could remember details with more accuracy than the mundane story

Question 10

mcgaugh and Cahill study 1 C

Answer 10

emotional events lead to better recall (flashbulb memories)

Question 11

mcgaugh and Cahill study 2 A

Answer 11

to study the role of adrenaline in the creation of flashbulb memories

Question 12

mcgaugh and Cahill study 2 M

Answer 12

Participants were presented with an emotional story about a car crash.
Half of the participants were injected with a beta-blocker called propranolol which prevents the activation of adrenaline and the amygdala (they block the receptor sites for adrenaline in the amygdala)
The other half took a placebo
Two weeks later the PPS were asked to come back and have their memory tested

Question 13

mcgaugh and Cahill study 2 R

Answer 13

participants in the propranolol condition had worse memories than the placebo condition.
Their memory recall was similar to the mundane condition from Study 1

Question 14

mcgaugh and Cahill study 2 C

Answer 14

flashbulb memories are formed due to the activation of the amygdala and the release of adrenaline

Question 15

mcgaugh and Cahill: cause-and-effect

Answer 15

Yes can be established (but may not be perfect). There are two separate conditions, only one IV being manipulated. Controlled conditions in the second study, placebo was given, no demand characteristics, don’t know if they have the drug or not, not looking for a specific change in people who took the drugs. Any difference in recall must have been due to the less activation of the amygdala. Cause-and-effect between the amygdala and flashbulb memories. Very controlled = a strength → we know there is a cause-and-effect.

Question 16

mcgaugh and Cahill: ecological validity

Answer 16

Reading a story is not the same as witnessing/ experiencing an actual emotional event. Not realistic, low ecological validity, lacks mundane realism. We don’t know if in real life the amygdala is actually working. Maybe only activated when you are reading things. Less useful, doesn’t tell you about the formation of flashbulb memories in real life. Lack of mundane realism.

Question 17

pitman et al (2002), what did he do, how does this help mcgaugh and Cahill

Answer 17

Pitman et al (2002) carried out a study where patients coming into emergency rooms after traumatic events such as car accidents, e.g. car accidents, were given beta-blockers for 19 days. One month after the traumatic event, people who had the drug showed fewer symptoms of PTSD than similar patients who did not receive the drugs.
⇒ adds reliability to McGaugh and Cahill, consistent findings in a natural setting

Question 18

pitman et al (2002), mcgaugh and Cahill: practical applications

Answer 18

can use McGaugh and Cahill’s findings to use beta-blockers to reduce the formation of flashbulb memories, reduces PTSD symptoms, their findings help PTSD sufferers

Question 19

Schaefer et al (2001) A

Answer 19

to see whether the reception context (whether received visually or not) of the news of 9/11 affected memory of the event

Question 20

Schaefer et al (2001) M

Answer 20

38 university students
27 saw the event immediately on TV (immediate) and 11 saw it after being informed about it (delayed)
Free recall about the event 28 hours after and 6 months after

Question 21

Schaefer et al (2001) R

Answer 21

Memory did not differ immediately after the event
6 months later, memory in the delayed group was less consistent and detailed

Question 22

Schaefer et al (2001) C

Answer 22

formation of flashbulb memories is affected by how we receive the news/ experience
A visual experience makes flashbulb memories more likely to form

Question 23

strengths of Schaefer et al (2001)

Answer 23

2 independent observers blind to the hypothesis, eliminates the researcher bias, the findings of the study are because of the reaction of the participants, more accurate results, increased internal validity, we are truly measuring the effect of the way that you receive it on your memory

Specific categories of behaviour, we aren’t interpreting anything, we have objectivity rather than a subjective interpretation, increasing validity

Question 24

weaknesses of Schaefer et al (2001)

Answer 24

Can’t control media coverage
Individual differences:
Some people may be more emotionally invested
Level of personal significance
Maybe those who saw it visually had naturally better memory
Medical history, different emotional reactions
Natural experiment means that we aren’t controlling for individual differences

Question 25

flashbulb memories evaluation: testable

Answer 25

Can’t ethically be there when a flashbulb memory is formed
Although Schaefer’s research was on participants who witnessed a real emotional event, it is difficult to test the exact emotional reaction at the time.

Question 26

flashbulb memories evaluation: evidence

Answer 26

There is robust scientific evidence (McGaugh and Cahill) for the involvement of the amygdala, suggesting that there is a biological mechanism in flashbulb memories that separates them from other memories.

Question 27

flashbulb memories evaluation: applications

Answer 27

We can use research into flashbulb memories (e.g. McGaugh and Cahill) to help people who witness trauma- link to Pitman.
Beta blockers → limit the activation of the amygdala → less likely to have a high enough emotional response to activate the special mechanism → don’t create flashbulb memories → less PTSD symptoms.

Question 28

flashbulb memories evaluation: construct

Answer 28

Level of emotion and personal significance is hard to measure.

Question 29

flashbulb memories evaluation: what exactly is a flashbulb memory?

Answer 29

Defining what a flashbulb memory is is difficult as it varies from person to person, people have different natural memory ability