cognitive approach: cognitive processing Flashcards
concept of memory
refers to the process by which information is encoded, stored and retrieved
short term memory definition
the capacity for holding a small amount of information in an active, readily available state for a short interval of time
short term memory information
Limited in duration and capacity. According to Miller, STM can hold only 7 ± 2 pieces of information. Short-term memory lasts for six to twelve seconds. When information in the short-term memory is rehearsed, it enters the long-term memory store in a process called “encoding.” When we recall information, it is retrieved from LTM and moved back into STM.
long term memory
infinite storage of memory indefinitely
types of long term memory
declarative: episodic and semantic
procedural
declarative memory
(“knowing what”) is the memory of facts and events and refers to those memories that can be consciously recalled.
There are two subsets of declarative memory: episodic and semantic
episodic memory
contains the memory of specific events that have occurred at a given time
semantic memory
contains general knowledge of facts and people e.g. concepts and schemas, is not linked to time and place
procedural memory
(“knowing how”) is the unconscious memory of skills and how to do things
what do memory models provide
a framework for an understanding of conceptualization of human
multi-store model of memory
Atkinson and Shiffron’s
This model was the first to separate memory into sensory, short-term and long-term memory.
The model argues that all memory is taken in through our senses.
When we pay attention to the stimuli they pass through sensory memory and into short-term memory.
There the information is held until either other information displaces it or, if we rehearse it, it is moved to long-term memory.
When we remember something, we are moving that information from long-term memory back into short-term memory so that it can be used.
assumption the MSM is based on
Memory consists of a number of separate locations in which information is stored
Memory processes are sequential
Each memory store operates in a single, uniform way
Milner and Scoville (1957), type of study, what does it support
The case study of HM, conducted by Milner and Scoville (1957) supports the multi-store memory model
about HM
HM suffered from severe seizures, so he had brain resection surgery to try and help his epilepsy. ⅔ of his hippocampus was removed
Milner and Scoville (1957) results
HM was able to perform tasks, these tasks also got easier with practise despite him not being able to recall the practise.
This showed his procedural memory being intact.
Furthermore, he was able to remember older memories, such as from his childhood but could only retain facts and experiences of a few seconds.
HM was unable to form new memories, known as anterograde amnesia.
He could not encode memories into his long term memory.
Due to this, HM was unable to learn new words, facts or faces, nor could he remember experiences from a few years before his surgery (retrograde amnesia).
Milner and Scoville (1957) conclusion + link
This supports the multi store memory model as it shows that the long term and short term memories are two distinct stores.
After having his hippocampus accidently removed due to surgery for epilepsy, his short term memory remained
The loss of his hippocampus meant that he could retrieve information from before the surgery, but he could not create new memories. He could, however, hold a conversation, showing that he had working (STM) memory.
It appears that the hippocampus is responsible for transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory.
This supports that there is more than one store for memory.
strengths of Milner and Scoville (1957)
The study was a case study. The strength of this study is that it was longitudinal - over 50 years! This means that change could be observed over time. In addition, case studies use method triangulation.
High ecological validity, no variables were manipulated and HM was observed in his natural environment.
Milner’s research met high ethical standards of consent, confidentiality and protection from harm
weaknesses of Milner and Scoville (1957)
The limitation of case studies is that they cannot be easily replicated. However, there are several other case studies of patients like HM - for example, Clive Wearing - which confirm the findings.
Some of the study was retrospective in nature. This means that we do not have a lot of data on HM’s actual cognitive abilities before the accident.
working memory model
developed by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) in response to Atkinson and Shiffrin’s (1968) multi store memory model.
seen as a more developed, dynamic and flexible model of memory
what is called short-term memory in the MSM is changed to a more sophisticated version in the working memory model
a representation of short term memory and argues that short term memory is not a static unitary store but a complex information processor composed of a number of different stores
suggests that there is no problem with multi-tasking if we are using different short term memory stores
STM stores
consist of the phonological loop, the episodic buffer, and the visuo-spatial sketchpad
these 3 ‘slave systems’ are controlled by the central executive
central executive
the driving force of the working memory model
controls which tasks are assigned to which slave system
slave systems (episodic buffer, visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop) are directed by the central executive
decides which information to pay attention to and which information to ignore.
phonological loop
processes sound/acoustic based information
2 sub components:
the articulatory control process (inner voice) which translates written words into speech
the phonological store (inner ear) which processes acoustic, speech-based information for a very short duration.
visuospatial sketchpad
organises visual and spatial information
used when we recognise a photo of a friend on social media or when we give directions to a stranger
divided into two parts:
visual cache- the ‘inner eye’, it stores information about form and colour
inner scribe- stores spatial and movement-related information, it also rehearses information which is ten stores in the visual cache.
episodic buffer
acts as a messenger between the long term memory and all the slave systems
integrates information from all components
maintains a sense of time so that events occur in a continuing sequence
shallice and warrington (1974) type of study, what does it support
The case study of KF, conducted by Shallice and Warrington (1974) supports the working memory model
about KF
KF had damage to the left parieto-occipital region of the brain after a motorcycle accident.
shallice and warrington (1974) aim
to investigate the extent of KF’s memory deficiency.
shallice and warrington (1974) results/ what could KF do/not do
KF was able to keep visual information in his short term memory and recall from long term memory.
His visuospatial sketchpad was intact.
However he was unable to keep verbal information in his short term memory and could only keep 1 or 2 digits at a time instead.
His phonological loop was damaged.
shallice and warrington (1974) conclusion + link
KF’s brain damage resulted in damage to the phonological loop but not the visuospatial sketchpad. KF was still able to move visual memory to his long term memory, demonstrating that short term memory is more complex than the multi store memory model suggested.
The case study suggests that short term memory is more than one store because KF’s visual memory was unaffected (visuo-spatial sketchpad), whereas his verbal memory/digit span (phonological loop) was damaged.
strengths of shallice and warrington (1974)
Triangulation- his case study was analysed through various different experimental techniques, providing new research on aspects of cognitive psychology that were not considered before
weaknesses of shallice and warrington (1974)
Low generalisability- only one participant studied
Lab environment (mainly)- low ecological validity and may not be a true representation of how KF would have behaved in an everyday setting
Low replicability- a case study and the data is only specific to KF
MSM critical thinking: strengths
There is significant research to support the theory of separate memory stores - both experimental research and in biological case studies of patients with brain damage.
The model is of historical importance. It gave psychologists a way to talk about memory and much of the research which followed was based on this model.
Applications- highlights the importance of rehearsal in educational settings
MSM critical thinking: weaknesses
The model is over-simplified- assumes STM and LTM are unitary stores, however we know LTM can be divided into episodic, semantic and procedural memory
The model does not explain memory distortion.
The model does not explain why some things may be learned with a minimal amount of rehearsal e.g. once bitten by a dog, that memory is quite vivid in spite of the lack of rehearsal.
Episodic memories do not need to be rehearsed to be transferred to LTM
There are several times that we rehearse a lot to remember material and it is not transferred to LTM.
schema
A schema is a mental framework of prior knowledge and experiences that helps us to understand and predict the world that we live in.
It is the way we organise categories of information and the relationships among them.
Schemas help us make predictions based on patterns and previous experience.
They also guide our behaviour and influence attention and learning.
We tend to notice things that are in line with our schema and there is the possibility that we forget or distort memories of things that are not in line with our schema. When we come across an unknown thing, we can use our schemas to work out what it is.
Schemas reconstruct
what did Piaget say
learning is a combination of: accommodation (when we change schema based on new information)
and
assimilation (when we change information to fit existing schema).
Bartlett (1932) aim
to investigate whether memory is accurate or reconstructed using schemas and past experiences
Bartlett (1932) method
20 students were shown a culturally unfamiliar story “The War of the Ghosts”.
They were then asked to recall the story on several occasions (after a few hours, days, weeks and years).
This is called serial reproduction.
Bartlett (1932) results
Shortening: the story became shorter
Rationalisting: participants removed odd/supernatural aspects e.g. the ghosts, and instead described a battle between Native American tribes
Assimilation: details were changed from culturally unfamiliar (canoe, hunting seals) to culturally familiar (boat, fishing)
Bartlett (1932) conclusion
This shows that our memory is not accurate like a video recording.
Instead, our memory is reconstructed using past experiences and schemas. This is the theory of reconstructive memory.
weaknesses of Bartlett (1932)
- Most participants remembered “something black came out of his mouth”. This is a weakness because it suggests that not all memory is reconstructed. Shocking or emotional events may be remembered accurately, suggesting that Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory is incomplete
- Sample was only 20 students. Low population validity as we cannot apply it to nonstudents. Students use their memory in a different way to other people (trying to remember new information everyday, lots of strain on their memory), results unique to them. Small sample size, less likely to be representative of the target population
- Conducted in 1932, lacks temporal validity. Globalisation means that we are more familiar with other cultures. Findings may not apply to the modern day. Question if culturally specific schemas still exist.
brewer and treyens (1981) aim
to see whether a stereotypical scheme of an office would affect memory of an office
a study of the role of schema in memory
brewer and treyens (1981) method
Participants were taken into a university student office and left for 35 seconds before being taken to another room
Then, they were asked to write down as much as they could remember from the office.
brewer and treyens (1981) results
Showed that participants recalled things of a “typical office” according to their schema
They did not recall the wine and picnic basket that were in the office.
brewer and treyens (1981) conclusion
The participants’ schema of an office influenced their memory of it.
They did not recall the wine and picnic basket because it is not part of their “typical office” schema.
This study gives evidence to show how our schemas affect our cognitive processes, such as memory.
brewer and treyens (1981) weaknesses
Ethical concerns regarding the deception used in the study, the participants had agreed to be in the study, but they were deceived about the true nature of the study and were not told when the experiment had begun → necessary to avoid demand characteristics
Sampling bias- not generalisable to the target population as only university students were used, meaning that the results were unique to their group
Sample size was small- only 30 university students, which further limits generalisability
No way to verify the schema of the participants prior to the experiment, but the researchers did a pilot study by using a questionnaire with students to determine schema consistent objects
critical thinking for schema theory
Schema theory is testable. This is seen in the studies by Bartlett and by Brewer & Treyens.
Biological research to support the way in which the brain categorises input e.g. Mahon et al (2009) found that from the visual cortex, information about living and non-living objects is shuttled to different parts of the brain - even in blind participants. These findings suggest that our brains automatically sort information and classify it, in the same manner that schema theory predicts.
Schema theory has been applied to help us understand how memory works. It also helps us to understand memory distortion.
Schema theory has also been applied to abnormal psychology (therapy for depression and anxiety), relationships (theories of mate selection), and health psychology (health campaigns to change unhealthy behaviours). It is a robust theory that has many applications across many fields of psychology.
Cohen (1993) argued that the concept of schema is too vague and hypothetical to be useful. Schema cannot be observed.
Schema theory is applied across cultures. There is no apparent bias in the research, although most of the early research was done in the West.
The theory helps to predict behaviour. We can predict, for example, what types of information will be best recalled when given a list of words. Trends, such as omitting information that is not of high relevance to the individual, are commonly seen in individuals recalling a news story. However, we cannot predict exactly what an individual will recall.
Cognition cannot be observed
The theory has been applied in many different ways to explain behaviour; can be used to explain memory distortion
Many of the studies are highly artificial, lacking ecological validity.
not yet entirely clear how schemas are acquired in the first place or the exact way they influence cognitive processes
schema theory cannot account for why schema-inconsistent information is sometimes recalled.
thinking
the process of using knowledge and information to make plans, interpret the world, and make predictions
decision making
the process of identifying and choosing alternatives
utility theory of decision making
Humans make rational choice based on which decision brings the highest benefit at the highest probability
Expected value = probability x outcome
An example of a normative model
2 models of decision making
normative
descriptive
normative models
how decision making should happen
descriptive models
how decision making does happen
theory of thinking and decision making
dual processing model
dual process model
Different problems require different ways of thinking
The Dual Process Model of Thinking proposes 2 ways of thinking: System 1 and System 2
system 1
intuitive thinking
automatic, intuitive, and effortless way of thinking, which often employs heuristics (mental shortcuts).
Fast and efficient but prone to errors when our assumptions do not match the reality of a specific situation.
Often System 1 works with what is believed to be a “correct” answer.
heuristics
mental shortcuts which focus on one aspect of a complex problem and ignore others.
system 2
rational thinking
slower, conscious, and rational mode of thinking
Goal-oriented and controls for biases.
Requires more effort.
Rational thinking allows us to analyse the world around us and think carefully about what is happening, why it is happening, what is most likely to happen next, and how we might influence the situation.
Often System 2 works with what is believed to be a “probable” answer.
tversky and kahneman (1974) aim
to investigate the effect of anchoring on estimating the value of a mathematics problem
tversky and kahneman (1974) method
high school students were given 5 seconds to estimate the value of 1x2x3x4x5x6x7x8 or the value of 8x7x6x5x4x3x2x1
tversky and kahneman (1974) results
the median for the ascending group was 512,
while the median for the descending group was 2250.
The actual value is 40,320
tversky and kahneman (1974) conclusion
since we read from left to right, the ascending group used “1” as an anchor and predict a lower value that the descending group that started with “8” as the anchor, demonstrating anchoring bias
tversky and kahneman (1974) link
Heuristics are a part of System 1 thinking. They are quick and work by a “rule of thumb”. Although they often “work”, they are prone to errors as there is no effort put into making the decision, for example leading to anchoring bias
Because they were using System 1, they used heuristics
This study also shows system 1 in action
strengths of tversky and kahneman (1974)
Reliability- Standardised procedure- easy to replicate
Highly controlled and has high internal validity. It can be inferred that the anchor was the cause of the higher (or lower) estimates by the students.
The researchers used the median to report the data. This allowed the researchers to diminish the influence of outliers on the reporting of the data.
weaknesses of tversky and kahneman (1974)
Independent measures design- Demand characteristics
Already anchored to first choice
Mundane realism- Artificial- doesn’t apply to real life situations
High school students- Not generalisable
Independent measures design- Participant variables e.g. maths ability
Low ecological validity- Very artificial. It is not too often in life that we have only five seconds to estimate the value of something. It is questionable to what extent the findings can be applied
Independent measures design- Participant variability may have played a role in the results. It would be better to have a matched pairs design to attempt to have two groups with an equivalent level of maths competency
englich and mussweiler aim
to determine the effect of a prosecutor’s suggestion for sentencing on the decision-making of a judge
englich and mussweiler participants
19 young trial judges (15M, 4F), avg. age 29.37, avg. 9.34 months of experience
englich and mussweiler method
19 judges were given a case of alleged rape. The prosecutor in one condition demanded a sentence of 2 months vs. 34 months.
Lab experiment (not in an actual courtroom)
englich and mussweiler results
participants presented with a low anchor chose an average sentence of 19 months. Participants presented with a high anchor chose an average sentence of 29 months
englich and mussweiler conclusion
this demonstrates anchoring bias as those in the low anchor condition were affected by the 3 months figure and chose a lower sentence than the high anchor condition
strengths of englich and mussweiler
True experiment - the researcher can infer a cause-and-effect relationship between the value of the anchor and the sentence
Use of a pilot group - helped to establish reasonable anchors. Also, the pilot group showed S2 thinking, serving as a control group for the other 2 conditions which showed S1 thinking
Low scores on judges’ sense of confidence - they may have been aware that their judgement was influenced by other factors
weaknesses of englich and mussweiler
Independent measures design - participant variability is a confounding variable, it may have played a role in the results
Small sample size - hard to generalise the findings.
Sample was limited in courtroom experience, so results can best be generalised to younger, less experienced judges
thinking and decision making critical thinking strengths
There is biological evidence that different types of thinking may be processed in different parts of the brain: Goel et al.(2000) had participants carry out a logic task similar to the Wason selection task that was either ‘abstract’ (using System 2) or ‘concrete’ (using System 1). When the task was abstract, the parietal lobe was active; when the task was concrete, the left hemisphere temporal lobe was active. This supports the model as it shows that there are at least 2 distinct systems of thinking. An abstract way and a concrete way.
The Wason selection task and other tests for cognitive biases are reliable in their results.
thinking and decision making critical thinking weaknesses
The model can seem to be overly reductionist as it does not clearly explain how (or even if) these modes of thinking interact or how our thinking and decision-making could be influenced by emotion.
The definitions of System 1 and System 2 are not always clear. For example, fast processing indicates the use of System 1 rather than System 2 processes. However, just because processing is fast does not mean it is done by System 1. Experience can influence System 2 processing to go faster.
