Cognitive Approach Flashcards
Cognitive approach
The idea that humans conduct mental processes on incoming information, i.e. human cognition, came to the fore of psychological thought during the mid-twentieth century, overlooking the stimulus-response focus of the behaviourist approach. A dominant cognitive approach evolved, advocating that sensory information is manipulated internally prior to responses made, influenced by, for instance, our motivations and beliefs. Introspection - a subjective method predominantly used by philosophical and psychodynamic approaches - was rejected in favour of experimental methodology to study internal processes scientifically.
The cognitive approach assumes:
- Psychology should be the study of internal mental processes, e.g., memory, attention, perception.
- The mind actively processes information from our senses.
- Between stimulus and response are complex mental processes, that can and should be studied scientifically.
- Humans can be seen as data processing systems.
- The workings of a computer and the human mind are alike - they encode, store information, and they have outputs.
Cognitive approach main components:
1) Theoretical and Computer models
2) Schema
3) Emergence of cognitive neuroscience
1) Theoretical and Computer models
- Cognitive psychologists use both theoretical and computer models to help them comprehend how internal mental processes work.
- In reality, there are overlaps between these two models, but theoretic models are abstract concepts whereas computer models refer to concrete ideas.
- The ‘information processing approach’ is primarily a theoretical model, though it incorporates computational elements.
- It suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval, as in the multi-store model of memory.
- It is based on the way that computers function, however a computer model would involve actually programming a computer to see if such instructions produce a similar output to humans. If they do, we can suggest that similar processes are occurring in the human mind.
- Such computational models of the mind have proved useful in the development of ‘thinking machines’ or artificial intelligence.
- Theoretical models are visual representations of internal mental processes that are used to help researchers simplify and study complex mental processes.
- Theoretical models are typically diagrams or flowcharts that show how information is passed between the different systems that manipulate it. For example, the multi-store model is a theoretical model of memory.
2) Schema
- Cognitive processing can often be affected by an individual’s beliefs or expectations, often referred to as ‘schema’.
- Schema are packages of ideas and information developed through experience. They act as a mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received by the cognitive system.
- Schema enables us to process lots of information quickly, which is useful as a mental short-cut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli.
- They provide us with expectations about what will happen in the world, rather than requiring us to process every single detail, all of the time.
- Furthermore, they allow us to make sense of ambiguous situations by ‘filling in the gaps’ in our knowledge, allowing us to act comfortably even when our information is lacking, making it easier to deal with complex situations.
- However, schema may also distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading to perceptual errors. An example is if a person’s expectations do not match up with the reality of what they have experienced.
- Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours, such as sucking and grasping. For example, the grasping schema consists of moving a hand towards an object and shaping the hand around the object in coordination with visual input.
- As we get older, our schema becomes more detailed and sophisticated.
- Adults have developed mental representations for almost everything.
3) Emergence of cognitive neuroscience
- Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on internal mental processes.
- Mapping brain areas to specific cognitive functions has a long history in psychology.
- As early as the 1860s, Paul Broca had identified how damage to an area of the frontal lobe (which later came to be known as Broca’s Area) could permanently impair speech production.
- It is only in the last 20 years, however, with advances in brain imaging and scanning techniques, such as fMRI and PET scans, that scientists have been able to systematically observe and describe the neurological basis of mental processes.
- For example, in research involving tasks that required the use of episodic and semantic memory, Tulving et al. were able to show how these different types of long-term memory may be located on opposite sides of the prefrontal cortex. As well as this, the system in charge of working memory - the central executive - is thought to reside in a similar area.
- Scanning techniques have also proved useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders.
- For example, the link between the parahippocampal gyrus and OCD is discussed and it appears to play a role in processing unpleasant information.
- The focus of cognitive neuroscience has recently expanded to include the use of computer-generated models that are designed to ‘read’ the brain. This has led to the development of mind mapping techniques, known as ‘brain fingerprinting’.
- One possible future application of this could be to analyse the brain wave patterns of eyewitnesses to determine whether they are lying in court.
Strength
Point: A strength of the cognitive approach is that it is applicable to a vast range of practical and theoretical contexts.
Evidence: Cognitive psychology has made significant contributions to fields like artificial intelligence (AI) and the development of ‘thinking machines’ (robots), advances that may drastically revolutionise how we live in the future. Furthermore, cognitive models of memory and problem-solving have inspired advances in AI systems that aim to replicate human-like decision-making and processing capabilities. Additionally, the cognitive approach has been instrumental in the formation of Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT), a widely used treatment for individuals suffering from depression and anxiety disorders. Research has shown that CBT helps identify and challenge negative thought patterns, leading to improved mental health.
Justification: This evidence suggests that the cognitive approach has a vast base in real-world applications, from technological advances like AI to psychological treatments like CBT. The ability of the cognitive approach to inform both fields indicates its versatility and utility. Moreover, its application to therapy highlights the approach’s broader relevance to improve human well-being.
Implication: As a result, this increases the external validity of the cognitive approach because its principles are generalisable to real-life contexts. The fact that cognitive theories underpin both clinical treatments and cutting-edge technology reinforces the idea that cognitive processes, such as memory, perception, and problem-solving are fundamental to various aspects of human experience. The widespread application of these principles boosts the relevance of the cognitive approach in explaining and addressing real-world phenomena.
Strength
Point: The cognitive approach has been highly commended for its use of scientific and objective methods.
Evidence: For example, many of the studies supporting the models of memory were conducted in highly controlled laboratory settings, with large sample sizes and standardised materials. One prominent theoretic model is the Multi-Store Model of Memory. Research evidence supporting this model comes from Jacobs’ study, which investigated the capacity of the short-term memory store. Jacobs’ experiment was a laboratory-based study, conducted under highly controlled conditions, ensuring that extraneous variables were minimised, and reliable data was obtained.
Justification: This means that many of the claims made by cognitive psychologists are supported by evidence derived from experiments with high internal validity. The controlled nature of laboratory experiments ensures that the findings are more likely to reflect the true relationship between variables rather than being influenced by external factors.
Implication: Consequently, the use of empirical methods by the cognitive approach elevates its scientific robustness, helping to reinforce the nature of psychology as a scientific discipline.
Counterargument: However, the cognitive approach has been criticised for heavily relying on inferences rather than tangible evidence of cognitive processes.
Evidence: In reference to Jacobs’ study on the capacity of short-term memory, his findings suggested that the STM can hold 7+/-2 chunks of information. However, this is only based on an assumption, as there is no direct evidence to corroborate for the actual capacity of the STM. Moreover, cognitive psychologists infer the internal workings of the mind from observable behaviours, but these inferences cannot explicitly provide evidence for mental processes.
Justification: This demonstrates that research related to theoretical models in the cognitive approach may lack the rigour and exactness seen in other scientific fields. While these inferences are based on systematic research, they profoundly rely on assumptions about the internal structure of memory that cannot be directly measured or observed.
Implication: Therefore, this reliance on inferences presents as a weakness of the cognitive approach. Although it attempts to employ scientific methods, the speculative nature of its conclusions emphasises that perhaps the cognitive approach may not be useful in explaining human cognition.
Weakness
Point: The cognitive approach has been criticised for being machine reductionist.
Evidence: One of the core assumptions of the cognitive approach is that the human mind operates similarly to a computer, specifically in the way it encodes, stores and processes information before producing an output. While there are clear parallels between human cognition and computational functions, this analogy has been criticised for oversimplifying human thought and processes. Unlike computers, human cognition is influenced by emotions, motivations and consciousness, which shape the way we process information. For instance, research has demonstrated that emotional factors, such as anxiety, can severely impact the accuracy of eyewitness testimony, showcasing that human memory is reconstructive and subject to distortion, aspects that a computer doesn’t possess.
Justification: This suggests that by comparing the human mind to a computer, biological, emotional and social factors are exclusively ignored. This approach mitigates the intricacy of human thought and processes. Therefore, such cognitive processes cannot be explained fully using a mechanical analogy, as human cognition is dynamic, adaptable, and influenced by factors beyond raw data processing.
Implication: Resultantly, this machine reductionism weakens the cognitive approach, as it fails to acknowledge the full complexity of mental processes that occur within humans. This can lead to the formulation of incomplete and potentially misleading theories regarding cognition, limiting its usefulness to real-life, particularly in understanding behaviour in emotional or high-stakes situations, such as eyewitness memory.
Weakness
Point: The cognitive approach has been criticised for its lack of application to everyday life.
Evidence: As stated, cognitive psychologists often infer mental processes based on observed behaviours in laboratory settings. However, this reliance on inferences leads to theories that are sometimes too abstract or theoretical to be directly applicable to real-life situations. Additionally, many experimental studies in cognitive psychology use artificial stimuli that do not reflect the complexity of real-world experience. For instance, Peterson and Peterson investigated the duration of short-term memory by asking participants to memorise a 3-letter consonant syllable trigram, a task that bears little resemblance to the type of information we typically need to remember in everyday life. This focus on artificial, decontextualized tasks limits the relevance of cognitive research to practical, real-world scenarios.
Justification: This illustrates that much of existing cognitive research cannot be easily generalised to real-world contexts. The excessive reliance on artificial stimuli and laboratory-based tasks means that findings may not be representative of how humans process information in natural, everyday settings. This approach underestimates the importance of real-life elements, such as emotional factors, social influences, and environmental distractions, which are essential in understanding everyday cognitive functions.
Implication: Therefore, this is a weakness of the cognitive approach, as research concerning thought processes may lack external validity. The limited applicability of laboratory-based findings and contrived mechanisms means that the cognitive approach may not fully capture how cognition operates in more realistic, practical scenarios. This diminishes the approach’s usefulness in such functional settings, e.g., education and therapy, where more contextually relevant and ecologically valid methods are needed to truly understand cognitive processes.
