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EPPP Ingrid > Cognitive Affective Bases > Flashcards

Cognitive Affective Bases Flashcards

1
Q

What is sensation

A

The detection of stimulation

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2
Q

Sensory information is first represented in the

A

short-term sensory stores

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3
Q

What is signal detection theory?

A

Previous theory about sensation that says that humans separate meaningful stimuli from “noise”. Response bias leads some people to categorize stimuli as meaningful vs noise.

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4
Q

What are the types of response bias that can be set?

A

Liberal response bias, if it is more costly to miss a target. Conservative response bias, if it is more costly to incorrectly characterize a stimulus as a target rather than noise.

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5
Q

What is discriminability (d’) in signal detection theory?

A

separation (signal strenght)/spread (background noise during stimulus presentation)

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6
Q

What is perception?

A

The detection and interpretation of sensory information. It takes into account context, our previous experiences and our current psychological state of mind.

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7
Q

40% of our brain is involved in processing (____) information, which tends to dominate our attention and perception.

A

Visual

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8
Q

What is hierarchical perceptual processing?

A

Information is processed and then sent to other cells or neuroanatomical structures for further processing.

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9
Q

What is parallel perceptual processing?

A

Information is simultaneously processed and by various cells or structures that have access to each other’s information and is integrated.

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10
Q

Multisensory processing is (more/less) advantageous, requires (more/less) attentional resources, likely actives the **(blank) **and (blank) lobes, and involves activity of (neurotransmitter).

A

More, more, frontal, parietal, acetylcholine

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11
Q

What is selective attention?

A

The ability to attend to certain stimuli and ignore others. It involves facilitating and inhibiting resources.

Different from global states of attention like sleep, wakefulness.

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12
Q

What is the Posner paradigm and what is valid and invalid cueing?

A

We are quicker to detect objects that have been cued before. Valid cues inform about a location where something relevant will happen, invalid cues inform of a location where nothing relevant will happen. Valid cueing increases accuracy and speed of detection.

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13
Q

Increasing attentional load will (increase/reduce) the interference of a distractor.

A

Reduce

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14
Q

What is attentional blindness? What is the classic example?

A

People sometimes fail to notice unexpected salient objects when their attention is otherwise occupied. Example is failing to notice a someone in a gorilla suit during a basketball game when instructed to track an aspect of the game.

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15
Q

Name and describe the three reasons why our attentional resources are limited.

A
  1. Strucural interference: The more similar tasks are, the more they compete for our attention.
  2. General resource: general limit to amount of attentional resources. Shown when attention is divided by two non-interfering tasks.
  3. Behavioral coherence- We can’t have multiple motor responses at the same time.
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16
Q

In the Stroop Effect, attention to (objects/attributes) takes precedence over attention to (objects/attributes).

A

Objects, attributes. You attend to the word (object) more than the attribute (color of ink).

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17
Q

What is attentional load theory?

A

The degree to which an ignored stimulus is processed depends on the extent of processing required by the attended stimulus. The more resources are required to process the attended stimulus, the less the interference of other stimuli.

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18
Q

Reflexive attention is a (bottom-up/top-down) process, while voluntary attention is a (bottom-up/top-down) process.

A

Bottom-up, top-down.

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19
Q

What is reflexive attention?

A

When sensory information is captured in a stimulus-driven way, especially stimuli with a high survival value (e.g., smell of smoke).

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20
Q

What is voluntary attention?

A

Ability to intentionally attend to something.

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21
Q

What is the conjunction search paradigm (Treisman)?

A

Participant is asked to search for a particular stimulus that satisfies two conditions among an array of stimuli, example of a top-down attention process.

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22
Q

The attentional control system for top-down attentional processes is thought to involve which brain areas?

A

Lateral parietal and frontal lobes.

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23
Q

The attentional control system for bottom-up attentional processes is thought to involve which brain areas?

A

Amygdala and ventral aspects of frontal lobes.

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24
Q

A stimulus presented on its own activates (greater/lesser) brain activity than when presented with other stimuli.

A

Greater.

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25
Q

Executive functioning is activated in (familiar/unfamiliar) situations.

A

Unfamiliar- EF is different from more routinized behaviors.

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26
Q

Among the several components of EF studied, latent variable analysis suggests that (blank) is a critical component and there is a near-perfect correlation between it and the other components.

A

Working memory

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27
Q

Which regions of the frontal lobe are thought to control EF?

A

Premotor and prefrontal cortex.

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28
Q

Working memory is hypothesized to involve these three aspects:

A

Phonological loop- to hold verbal info
Visuospatial scratchpad- to hold visual info
Manager that allocates attention.

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29
Q

Frontal lobe lesions can involve the following cognitive and behavioral symptoms

A

Loss of divergent thinking (e.g., reduced verbal fluency), EF declines, increased risk-taking and rule breaking (decreased inhibition).

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30
Q

Define fluid versus crystallized intelligence and trajectory in adulthood.

A

Fluid intelligence involves abstract thinking and problem solving, peakes in 30’s and declines in older adulthood. Crystallized intelligence is stored knowledge and improves into the 60’s and 70’s.

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31
Q

What is the Cattell-Horn theory of intelligence?

A

Fluid vs crystallized intelligence

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32
Q

What are the three levels in Luria’s model of intelligence, from the bottom up?

A
  1. regulation of cortical arousal and attention
  2. receiving, processing and retaining information
  3. programming, regulating and verifying behavior

The Planning, Attention, Simultaneous and Successive Model is based on Luria’s 3-level model.

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33
Q

What was Spearman’s theory of intelligence?

A

There is a general factor and a specific factor that each influence each mental ability.

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34
Q

What is Thurstone’s theory of intelligence?

A

Several different ability categories independent of a higher-order g factor.

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35
Q

What is the Cattell-Horn-Caroll theory of intelligence?

A

There is a higher order g that influences Gf (fluid intelligence) and Gc (crystallized intelligence).

Majority of contemporary intelligence tests are based on it.

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36
Q

EF, processing speed and WM are domains of (fluid/crystallized) intelligence.

A

Fluid intelligence

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37
Q

Meta-analyses show the following gender differences in visual-spatial tasks, mathematics, verbal abilities:

A

Visual-spatial tasks- males outperform females
mathematics- no difference
verbal- no difference

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38
Q

What was the critique of the earlier versions of the Stanford-Binet that prompted Weschler Scales to be developed?

A

They relied too heavily on verbal abilities.

SB does not generate subtests scores.

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39
Q

The Stanford-Binet and WAIS-IV are (blank) predictors of academic achievement.

A

grossly valid

40
Q

What is the criterion validity of a measure

A

how accurately test measures the outcome it was designed to measure. Includes concurrent and predictive validity.

41
Q

g (general intelligence) covaries the most with

A

academic achievement, military training assignments, attained SES, performance on complex jobs.

42
Q

Describe psychometric properties of current intelligence tests

A
  1. standardization samples of 2,000+ stratified by age
  2. convergent validity with at least one other intelligence test
  3. conormed with an academic achievement measure
  4. appropriate split-half and test-retest reliability
  5. results of EFA and CFA to address construct validity

test-retest reliability on speeded tasks is lower

43
Q

Name a nonverbal intelligence measure created in attempt to alleviate cultural bias

A

Leiter-R, Raven’s Progressive Matrices

44
Q

What did Sternberg’s Project Rainbow demonstrate about predictors of first year undergrad GPA?

A

Creativity and practical ability predict GPA above and beyond SAT scores.

The measures of creativity and practical ability reduced ethnic differences particularly for Hispanics.

45
Q

Learning theory in the early 20th century was based on the work of which two individuals?

A

Pavlov (classical conditioning) and Thorndike (operant conditioning)

46
Q

What is classical conditioning? Explain in terms of US, UR, CS, CR.

A

US –> UR
US paired with CS
US+CS –> UR
after conditioning
CS –> CR (without US present)

47
Q

What is John B. Watson known for?

A

Conditioning Little Albert to fear white rats, which later generalized to any white furry objects.

48
Q

Describe classical conditioning as a mechanism for drug response, aka the conditioned place effect.

A

Environmental cues impact the physiological response to the drug. For example, if heroin is administered always in the same room, the body begins antagonistic response as soon as you enter the room, which would lessen the drug’s effect and build tolerance. If drug is administered in new room, the same dose can lead to an overdose.

49
Q

What is Thorndike’s “law of effect”?

A

Random behaviors will be repeated if followed by a reward.

50
Q

Who coined the term operant conditioning?

A

B.F. Skinner

51
Q

Explain positive and negative reinforcement and punishment

A

Positive reinforcement- add something pleasant, behavior increases
Negative reinforcement- remove something unpleasant, behavior increases
Positive punishment- add something unpleasant, behavior decreases
Negative punishment- remove something pleasant, behavior decreases

52
Q

What is shaping?

A

Behaviors close to target behavior are reinforced, aka successive approximations.

53
Q

(Classical/operant) conditioning is involuntary, whereas (classical/operant) conditioning is voluntary and involves a degree of choice.

A

Classical, operant

54
Q

What is the Premack Principle?

A

a more probable behavior (one you are more likely to do willingly) can reinforce a less probable behavior

also known as Grandma’s principle

55
Q

What is a continuous reinforcement schedule, and what are its effects on learnng?

A

Reinforcement occurs every time, fastest way to learn but also very fast extinction after reinforcement stops.

56
Q

What is a fixed ratio schedule, and what are its effects on learning?

A

Reinforcer is provided every certain (fixed) number of responses. Lead to steady response rates.

57
Q

What is a variable ratio schedule, and what are its effects on learning?

A

Reinforcement is provided after a varied number of responses. Lead to high response rates and slow extinction rates.

58
Q

What is a fixed interval schedule, and what are its effects on learning?

A

Reinforcment provided after a certain (fixed) amount of time. Response rates are steady and then increase sharply right before reinforcement is provided, then slow down immediately after.

59
Q

What is a variable interval schedule, and what are its effects on learning?

A

Reinforcement is provided after a variable amount of time. Leads to steady and fast response rates and slow extinction.

60
Q

What are the components of the “modal model” of information processing (Waugh & Norman, then Atkinson & Shiffrin).

A

Sensory memory, short-term memory, long-term memory.

Sensory memory now considered too brief to be memory!

61
Q

What are encoding, storage and retrieval?

A

Encoding: initial learning of information.
Storage: maintaining memory over a period of time.
Retrieval: process of accessing info stored in LTM.

62
Q

What is sensory memory?

A

It involves retaining visual images and auditory inputs for milliseconds. now not considered memory

63
Q

What is short-term memory?

A

Storage of info that can be retained for a short time and in limited quantities.

64
Q

What is retroactive interference and what is proactive interference?

A

Retroactive interference: later learning that interferes with info that was previously encoded.
Proactive interference: previously learned info that interferes with ability to learn new info

65
Q

What is long-term memory and what are the three main types of long term memory?

A

All the information that has been learned, is relatively permanent. Includes declarative/explicit memory, implicit memory and emotional memory.

66
Q

List and describe the two types of declarative/explicit memory.

A

Semantic memory: knowledge of the world, facts. Requires hard work to store.
Episodic memory: autobiographical memory, stored automatically.

67
Q

What brain regions are involved with episodic memory?

A

Temporal lobes (specifcially hippocampus, perirhinal cortex) and aspects of frontal lobes.

68
Q

What is prospective memory?

A

Remembering to do something later.

69
Q

What is implicit memory and is it bottom-up or top-down?

A

Unconscious, non-intentional memory like ability to perform tasks. Bottom-up process.

70
Q

What brain region is involved in emotional memory?

A

Amygdala- detects things as threats.

71
Q

What is the Zeigarnik effect>

A

People will remember incomplete or interrupted tasks better than completed/uninterrupted ones.

72
Q

What are the three components of emotions?

A

physiological effects, cognitive appraisals, subjective feelings

73
Q

What is the James-Lange theory of emotion? What are some critiques of it?

A

Emotion is the psychological response physiological changes produced by a stimulus. For example, person sees bear, HR and breathing increase and they run away, person observes this, person concludes they are afraid. Critiques include studies showing that electrical stimulation produces physiological but not emotional responses.

William James and Carl Lange proposed the theory independently.

74
Q

What is the Cannon-Bard theory of emotion? What brain areas are involved?

A

Person experiences an emotion and then notes the emotion and the physiological changes simulaneously. First stimulus is processed in the cortex, then in the thalamus, which then leads to behavioral response.

75
Q

What is Schachter and Singer’s theory of emotion?

A

Physiological arousal plus cognitive appraisal of a situation is needed to determine emotional response. Physiological responses associated with different emotions are essentially the same and what differs is the cognitive interpretation of those responses.

Autonomic arousal -> cog appraisal -> emotion

Was then subsumed into broader ‘cognitive appraisal’, which is now the dominant model.

76
Q

What is Lazarus’ appraisal model of emotion?

A

Primary appraisal- individual first appraises stimuli as positive/negative, benign/stressful.
Secondary appraisal- individual identifies resources and options to cope with stimuli, includes emotion focused coping and problem focused coping

Later adaptations of this theory say that each emotion has particular motivational function, more comprehensive vs Lazarus mostly stress response theory

77
Q

Describe Zajonc’s theory of emotion

A

In response to cognitive appraisal theories, Zajonc proposed that emotions can be experiences without cognitive appraisal.

78
Q

What is the somatic marker hypothesis?

A

Physiological responses (or somatic markers) are regulated in the emotional substrates of the brain, particularly the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, and emotional processes guide decision-making. The VMPFC is involved in decision-making and social behavior, theory says deficits in decision-making following lesion in this area are due to inability to draw on emotions to make decisions.

79
Q

Describe the basic emotion model and dimensional emotion model and who is associated with each.

A

Basic Emotion Model: Ekman & Friesen. There are (usually) 6 ‘basic’ human emotions that are expxerienced globally (happy, sad, surprised, disgusted, angry, afraid). Secondary emotions are combinations of the basic emotions.

Dimensional Emotionl Model: Osgood, Suci, Tannenbaum found three basic dimensions of emotions, Russell & Mehrabian replicated and stuck with two strongest factors- valence (pleasantness) and arousal (autonomic response), created circumplex model of emotion.

Both models criticized for not capturing all human experience.

80
Q

List the structures of the limbic and describe the function of the most important ones.

A

Amygdala- receives inputs from sensory systems, manages stress response, center of fear-related processing.
Hippocampus- reciprocal connections with cortex, encodes declarative memory, understanding spatial relations.
Orbitofrontal cortex- regulates emotional behavior, manages inhibition of impulsive emotional responses. Strongly affected by alcohol.
Nucleus Accumbens brain’s pleasure center, associated with depression and OCD,
Other structures: olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, mamillary bodies, septal nuclei, subcallosal gyrus, insular cortex, parahippocampal gyrus, cingulate gyrus.

Limbic system is highly connected with endocrine system and autonomic nervous system.

81
Q

What are the overall functions of the limbic system?

A

Emotional processing, memory, motivation and reinforcing behaviors.

82
Q

What is response generalization and what is stimulus generalization in operant conditioning?

A

Response generalization: When the same stimulus can generate similar responses.
Stimulus generalization: when similar stimuli generate the same response.

82
Q

What are the three components of motivation?

A

arousal, direction, intensity

83
Q

What is drive theory of motivation and who is associated with it? What are primary drives and secondary drives?

A

When equilibrium is upset, organism is motivated to engage in behavior that will restore equilibrium (reduce drive).
Clark Hull.
Primary drives are biological and innate, secondary drives are learned thru experience and do not support biological needs.

84
Q

What are the critiques of drive theory?

A

Secondary reinforcers (e.g., money) do not reduce the drive (to get more money).
Frustration (no reward or small reward, when expecting a large reward) can also increase motivation.

85
Q

Describe Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and list the needs in order.

A

You will be motivated to to meet each level of need from lowest to highest, only motivated for next level once the previous one is met.
Needs: physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization.

Little empirical support for this theory.

86
Q

Describe the following workplace motivation theories

  • Two-factor workplace motivation theory (Herzberg, Mausner, Sniderman).
  • Need for Achievement Theory (Atkinson & McClelland)
  • Self-Determination Theory
A

**Two-factor workplace theory: **intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, factors that increase motivation and reduce motivation if absent (e.g., hygiene)
Need for Achievement: Motivation guided by achievement (sense of accomplishment), authority (lead and make an impact) and affiliation (being liked and positive social connections), people have varying degrees of each.
Self-Determination theory: inherent growth tendencies guide motivation including competence (need to develop mastery), relatedness (need for relationships), and autonomy (need for control of one’s own life).

Need for achievement theory particularly relevant in I/O psychology

87
Q

What is cognitive dissonance theory?

A

When people’s values don’t match behavior, they will change their values/beliefs to reduce psychological tension.

Developed by Festinger

88
Q

What is expectancy theory of motivation?

A

valence (value of the consequence) + expectancy (perceived ability to achieve the goal) + instrumentality (belief that the behavior will lead to the outcome) = motivation

Developed by Vroom

89
Q

What is rational emotive behavior therapy and who developed it?

A

Developed by Ellis. Focus on how thoughts determine emotions, aimed to reduce “self-defeating thoughts” which lead to maladaptive behaviors and pathological emotional states.

90
Q

Who developed cognitive therapy and what are the main principles?

A

Developed by Aaron Beck. Automatic thoughts and cognitive distortions lead to emotional problems. Challenging these reduces emotional problems.

91
Q

What is learned helplessness (Selinger & Maier) and which mental disorder is it related to?

A

Learned helplessness says that animals continually exposed to pain will eventually stop trying to escape the pain, possible explanation for depression (people feel they are unable to escape emotional pain –> depression).

92
Q

What is attributional theory (Weiner)?

A

People have attributional styles including:
* globality/specificity: are events general response or situation-specific
* stability/instability: how consistent will something be over time
* internality/externality: extent to which events are a result of internal vs external factors

93
Q

What is equity theory?

A

When individuals feel over/under-rewarded in the workplace they experience emotional distress and change either evaluations of their work or contributions to their work.

94
Q

What is goal-setting theory (Locke)?

A

Goals affect behavior by
1. directing attention
2. mobilizing efforts and resources for the task
3. encouraging persistence
4. facilitating development of strategies to complete the goal

95
Q

What is the Yerkes-Dodson law?
What are the two theories that explain the mechanisms at work? Which theory has more support?

A

Yerkes-Dodson Law: Optimal level of anxiety will lead to peak performance.
Conscious processing hypothesis: increased anxiety about performance leads to conscious control of a skill that could otherwise be automatic, which negatively affects performance.
Processing efficiency theory: increased stress reduces capacity of working memory; more support for this theory.

96
Q

What is conservation of resources theory (Hobfoll)?

A

Individual is motivated to build and maintain resources that will benefit them and the group (society) as a whole.

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