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13C > Cognitive > Flashcards

Cognitive Flashcards

1
Q

What is the biological key question?

A

How effective is drug therapy for treating addictions?

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2
Q

In 2013/2014 how many opioid users were there in the UK?

A

293,879 opiate users

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3
Q

What ‘replacement’ drugs are provided to opioid users to help reduce their symptoms of withdrawal?

A

Methadone or Buprenorphine

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4
Q

Give some symptoms of drug addiction

A

Cravings, seeking drugs, withdrawal symptoms, irritability

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5
Q

How does Buprenorphine

A

Buprenorphine is a similar shape to heroin and so binds to the opioid receptors blocking them partially which stops the withdrawal symptoms but doesn’t give feelings of euphoria

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6
Q

What is an alternative therapy for drug addiction other than drug treatment?

A

Counselling, support groups e.g. alcoholics anonymous

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7
Q

Why is the biological key question a key issue in terms of crime in society?

A

Drug addiction leads to theft owing to the need to find money to buy drugs

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8
Q

Why do drug users need to take more and more drugs each time in order to achieve the same high?

A

Repeated exposure to recreational drugs can lead to tolerance and withdrawal symptoms which
continues drug use and can lead to social and economic costs so needs to be treated.

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9
Q

Why do drug users need to be weaned off drugs instead of them taken away all at once?

A

When a user stops taking they experience withdrawal symptoms such as shakes, sweating, sickness and by gradually reducing drug in take a person reduces the effects of these symptoms

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10
Q

How does heroin affect the brain/body?

A

Heroin reduces GABA (an inhibitory neurotransmitter) which causes an increase in
Dopamine. Heroin effects the opioid receptors in the brain. This action suppresses physical pain. This
chemical effect of heroin slows the motor functions which is why you feel so relaxed and out of it when
you’re taking heroin.

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11
Q

How does methadone work?

A

Methadone mimics the action of heroin at the synaptic level through dopamine and endorphins

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12
Q

How is buprenorphine used to help to wean a person off drugs?

A

Over time, the dose of buprenorphine
is gradually reduced until it can be stopped completely

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13
Q

When should a person begin to take their buprenorphine and why?

A

in binding with the receptor it ‘pushes’ heroin out and so
a person can have severe withdrawl…so it’s best to wait until you’re already suffering withdrawal to take
it

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14
Q

Give 2 pieces of evidence that support the argument that drug therapy is effective at treating drug addiction

A

Jones (2004) - Buprenorphine prevents withdrawal, allows for a more individual treatment process (it is
long lasting and thus more flexible when it can be given) and has less chance of overdose
&
Marteau et al found it 6 times safer than methadone

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15
Q

What did rat park (Alexander) suggest about the effectiveness of drug therapy in treating addiction?

A

Alexander et al (1978) showed that substitute prescribing may not be needed (or the ideal method) Rat
park took drug addicted animals and put them into a lush and exciting social cage, over time they weaned
themselves of their addiction because their environment replaced the euphoria they got from the drugs

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16
Q

What is the aim of the biological practical?

A

Aim: To conduct a correlation to the relationship between testosterone (shown by 2D:4D ratio) and aggression
(shown via aggression questionnaire)

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17
Q

Which research method did we use to collect our results?

A

Correlation

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18
Q

What is the alternative hypothesis for your biological practical?

A

There will be a positive relationship between 2D:4D ratio, and score on an aggression
questionnaire.

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19
Q

What is the null hypothesis for your biological practical?

A

There will be no relationship between 2D:4D ratio and score on an aggression questionnaire.

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20
Q

What are your two co-variables in the biological practical?

A

2D:4D ratio and scores on an aggression questionnaire / 15

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21
Q

What type of sampling did you use in your biological practical?

A

Opportunity sampling

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22
Q

What was the sample of your biological practical?

A

______ people from college in the North of England, aged between 16 and 20

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23
Q

What questionnaire did your sample complete in the biological practical?

A

30 questions about their aggressiveness and measured
on a 5 point scale giving them a total for aggression

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24
Q

How did you measure the participants level of testosterone exposure in the biological practical?

A

measuring the length of their ring finger and index finger and measuring the
ratio between the two
(2D:4D ratio)

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25
Q

What graph could you use to plot the results of the biological practical?

A

Scatter graph

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26
Q

Why was the sample of your biological practical neither androcentric or gynocentric?

A

both males and females in the finger ratio measures/aggression questionnaire making it more
generalisable. This means the results would be more representative about the correlation between finger ratio and
aggression in a wider population

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27
Q

How was your biological practical reliable?

A

The questionnaires about aggression and the finger measures are standardised which means it can be easily
repeated. This is good because the procedure can be repeated to see if the results about the correlation with finger
ratio and aggression would be the same.

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28
Q

What is the strength of you collecting quantitative data in your biological practical in terms of mean aggression scores /15 and 2D:4D ratio?

A

A strength is it used quantitative data from the aggression quesitonnaires which allows for statistical
testing/analysis. This is good because we can to see if the results about aggression and finger ratio are due to chance

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29
Q

How is your biological practical ethical?

A

The study is ethical as participants knew we were measuring their aggression levels and their finger ratio as a
proxy for testosterone when they consented. This means we have consent for the research as participants were fully
aware of the purpose and that we would discuss their aggression

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30
Q

How is your sample NOT representative in your biological practical?

Why is this a problem?

A

This has small opportunity sample from the same sixth form college in the north east completing the aggression
questionnaire so not generalisable because they might share characteristics. This is a problem because the results
about the relationship between aggression and finger ratio might not be applicable to non-teenagers.

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31
Q

Why might there be issues with social desirability in your biological practical and how do these affect the validity of your results?

A

when people are answering the questionnaire on their aggression levels they may change their answers to appear either more or less aggressive which makes the findings less valid

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32
Q

What is an issue with using a 5 point scale on your aggression questionnaire and how does this affect validity?

A

5 point scales used on the aggression questionnaire can be subjective in interpretation e.g. ‘4’ might mean
different things to different people. This is an issue because the results about the correlation between finger ratio
and aggression might be less valid if people interpret the aggression scores differently

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33
Q

Can we establish cause and effect between the 2D:4D and aggression scores/15? How does this affect validity?

A

No. We can only see a relationship between 2D:4D and aggression scores/15 and this reduces validity

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34
Q

What may be an ethical issue with your biological practical?

A

Taking part in the study might have been upsetting for some participants to answer questions about their own
temper/aggression. This means the study has breached the ethical guideline of protection from harm because of the
psychological harm linked to understanding their aggression

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35
Q

What were the results of your biological practical? (remember that you can make up the number for your correlation coefficient but it needs to be between -1 and +1)

A

There is a ______________ correlation between the 2D:4D ratio and aggression score on a questionnaire out of 15 (rs = -0.79, CV = 0.464).

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36
Q

What is evolution?

A

The change in a species over time through natural selection

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37
Q

What is natural selection?

A

Where genes which are beneficial for survival in a certain environment are selected for through better survival or reproduction

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38
Q

What is the Environment of Evolutionary Adaptation?

A

The environment you currently live in that your genes are operating in

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39
Q

What is “the warrior gene”?

A

MAOA which effects serotonin meaning higher aggression

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40
Q

What is a genotype?

A

The complete gene profile of an individual

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41
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

The visible traits of an organism which is how their genes interact/are expressed in a certain environment

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42
Q

What is the belief about aggression coming from evolutionary theory?

A

Aggression was beneficial to the survival/reproduction of our ancestor

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43
Q

What are reasons aggression is thought to be beneficial?

A

Ancestors were able to use aggression to gain and protect their resources beneficial for survival, Ancestors were able to scare off rivals meaning they were able to mate and reproduce, Ancestors were able to deter partners from infidelity

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44
Q

How does sexual selection work for aggression?

A

Aggression would help males gain dominance and resources and so women were attracted for more aggressive males

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45
Q

Why are females seen as less aggressive than males?

A

Physical aggression is too risky i.e. harm to unborn children- a selection for social aggression instead

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46
Q

What did Mazur find?

A

Males show an increase in fighting behaviours around puberty due to this being when partner selection becomes a factor

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47
Q

What did Daly & Wilson find?

A

58 / 214 cases of murder motivated by sexual jealousy, confidence in paternity and warning to potential rivals

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48
Q

What did Miller find?

A

55% of women in abusive relationships cite their partner’s jealousy as a factor in their partner’s behaviour

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49
Q

What did Buss & Shackleford find?

A

Some cultures have more aggression than others- this shows aggression is environmental not purely due to genes

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50
Q

Which of these is an alternative theory saying we might learn aggression from role models around us meaning this theory might be incorrect?

A

Social Learning Theory

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51
Q

Which of these is a true evaluation point for this theory?

A

It is reductionist as it doesn’t look at the influence of upbringing/modern societies impact just genes passed down from ancestors

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52
Q

Is this theory empirical?

A

No- you cannot measure the behaviour of our ancestors directly so we cannot see if this theory is correct

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53
Q

What is the Thanatos?

A

The death instinct, the source of negative emotions like aggression

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54
Q

What is the conscious?

A

The part of your mind you are aware of i.e. your current thoughts

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55
Q

What is the unconscious?

A

The part of your mind you cannot be aware of i.e. unacceptable desires and violent urges

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56
Q

What is the Preconscious?

A

The part of your mind you can become aware of if you wish i.e. memories

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57
Q

What is the Id?

A

The part of your psyche which works on the pleasure principle meaning it wants instant gratification

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58
Q

What is the SuperEgo?

A

The part of your psyche which works on the morality principle meaning it wants to follow the rules and gives you guilt to control your behaviour

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59
Q

What is the Ego?

A

Operates on the reality principle meaning it weighs up the other two components and will decide which to give into and when

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60
Q

How does Thanatos link to aggression?

A

It is the source of aggression so if you have a strong Thanatos it might lead to more aggressive impulses and if the Thanatos is turned outward it is aggression

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61
Q

How does the Id link to aggression?

A

If you have an aggressive impulse it will encourage you to act and if it is frustrated and stopped from getting some other desire it might create aggressive impulses

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62
Q

How does the SuperEgo link to aggression?

A

It is the thing which makes you feel guilt for breaking rules and norms so if you have a strong one it might decrease the chances of aggression

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63
Q

How does the Ego link to aggression?

A

It weighs the desires of the other two components so will be the final decider on if you act aggressively or not

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64
Q

How do defence mechanisms tie to aggression?

A

They are a method to protect your ego by redirecting energy, this might cause you not to be aggressive or to direct the aggression onto a safe target

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65
Q

What is Catharsis? and how it ties to aggression

A

The positive result of chanelling energy into a different format meaning you release built up aggressive impusles by being aggressive in sport or watching a violent movie

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66
Q

What did Geen and Quanty find?

A

Expression of aggression can have a positive effect in terms of decreasing physiological arousal

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67
Q

What did Verona and Sullivan find?

A

They found that when participants administered either aggressive via shock or non aggressive responses after being made angry, heart rate was found to have reduced in those administering the aggressive responses showing evidence that catharsis is a credible explanation

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68
Q

What did Bushman find?

A

Those who took part in a cathartic activity via venting were actually more aggressive than those who didn’t have a chance to release their aggression.

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69
Q

Why is this theory more holistic than others?

A

It is holistic as it takes into account both nature and nurture due to everyone having these components but their upbringing influencing them

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70
Q

Which of these is a true?

A

The theory is not empirical as you cannot measure the components directly

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71
Q

Which of these is an alternative theory saying we might learn aggression from role models around us meaning this theory might be incorrect?

A

Social Learning Theory or another biological theory

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72
Q

Why is this theory useful?

A

Psychodynamic theories have been used to create talking therapies which many have found useful to deal with personal issues

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73
Q

Which brain system/area is linked to aggression?

A

The Limbic system

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74
Q

What is the Limbic system responsible for?

A

Fight or flight

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75
Q

What does the Amygdala do?

A

It is the source of emotions like aggression so higher activity would lead to more aggression

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76
Q

What does the Hypothalamus do?

A

controls hormone levels like Testosterone so more activity meaning more aggression

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77
Q

What does the PFC do?

A

responsible for self-control and emotional regulation so more activity meaning less aggression

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78
Q

Which part of the brain carries signals between the other named parts?

A

Periaqueductal area

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79
Q

What did Raine demonstrate?

A

NGRI participants had higher activity in the right amygdala and less activity in the PFC

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80
Q

What does KluverBucy Syndrome demonstrate?

A

Animals with removal or damage to their Amygdala show less aggression

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81
Q

What is a criticism of KluverBucy?

A

Animals brains and systems are different to humans and so the results might not apply to explain human aggression

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82
Q

What is a mains trength of looking at brain areas for a source of aggression?

A

This is an empirical explanation as you can measure brain activity levels directly using brain scans making it a more objective and credible explanation of aggression

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83
Q

What is a problem with using brain scans to research aggression in the way this does?

A

They are low in ecological validty which means the results we get from them might not apply to aggression in real life situations

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84
Q

Why is this theory reductionist?

A

It ignores other factors which could cause aggression and focuses only on brain activityi.e. ignoring evolution or upbringing

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85
Q

Which of these is an alternative theory saying we might learn aggression from role models around us meaning this theory might be incorrect?

A

Social Learning Theory

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86
Q

A neurone is

A

A nerve fibre which carries electrical signals in the brain

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87
Q

A neurotransmitter is

A

A chemical which carries messages between nerve cells

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88
Q

A hormone is

A

A chemical carried in the blood which spreads messages around the body

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89
Q

What is the central nervous system?

A

The brain and the spinal cord

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90
Q

What is this blue area of the brain?

A

Frontal lobe- responsible for emotional control and higher order thinking

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91
Q

What is this red area of the brain?

A

Occipital lobe- for vision

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92
Q

What is this green area of the brain?

A

Temporal lobe- for memory and hearing

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93
Q

What is this yellow area of the brain?

A

Parietal lobe- controling bodily sensation and movement

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94
Q

What is the role of a dendrite?

A

It collects signals and delivers them to the main body of the nerve cell

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95
Q

What is the role of a axon?

A

It carries the electrical signal down the length of the neurone

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96
Q

What is the role of an axon terminal?

A

It passes the electrical signal to the next neurone

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97
Q

What is the role of a myelin sheath?

A

It insulates the axon of the cell to stop the electrical signal disapating and speeding it up

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98
Q

What is a synapse?

A

The end of one neurone and the beginning of another which has a gap and information must pass across

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99
Q

What is a vesicle?

A

A ‘bubble’ which is full of neurostransmitters that it can release into the synaptic gap

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100
Q

What is a synaptic gap?

A

The space between two neurones which neurotransmitters must drift through

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101
Q

What is a receptor?

A

An area on the second neurone which neurotransmitters bind to and create a new impulse

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102
Q

What is the process of synaptic transmission?

A

A nerve impulse causes a release of neurotransmitter from the vesicles. These neurotransmitters drift across the synaptic gap. On the next neurone the neurotransmitters bind to receptor sites.

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103
Q

What is the role of Dopamine?

A

It creates a sense of reward or enjoyment

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104
Q

What is the role of Serotonin?

A

It creates a feeling of relaxation and happiness

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105
Q

What is the role of Cortisol?

A

It creates a feeling of stress

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106
Q

What is an action potential?

A

the change in electrical potential associated with the passage of an impulse along the membrane of a muscle cell or nerve cell.

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107
Q

Where does a brain cell’s activity begin?

A

-70mv resting potential

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108
Q

Where does the all-or-nothing principle come in?

A

-55mvs the threshold

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109
Q

What happens after a threshold has been met?

A

Depolarisation

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110
Q

What is depolarisation?

A

Where the cell is becoming less negative inside as ions move in and out

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111
Q

What is at the peak of the action potential graph?

A

+40mv the action potential firing

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112
Q

What happens after the action potential firees?

A

Repolarisation

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113
Q

What is repolarisation?

A

Where the cell is becoming more negative inside as ions move in and out

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114
Q

What happens at the end of the action potential process?

A

Hyperpolarisation where the inside of the cell gets extra negative

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115
Q

What is the aim of Raine’s study?

A

To see activity differences in brain structure of cortical and subcortical areas of the brain between NGRI murderers and a control group of non-criminals

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116
Q

How many NGRI prisoners were in the sample?

A

41

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117
Q

How many males were in the group

A

39

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118
Q

What design was this study?

A

Matched Pairs

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119
Q

What were the participants and the control group matched on?

A

Age, gender and Schizophrenia

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120
Q

What control was put in place for the NGRI participants?

A

They were taken off their medication before the study

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121
Q

What task did the participants do?

A

Visual targetting task aka continuous performance test

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122
Q

What timings were used in the study?

A

Practice test then 10m later injected then CPT and finally 32m until PET scan

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123
Q

What were they injected with?

A

FDG

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124
Q

What scan was used?

A

A PET scan

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125
Q

What was found about the prefrontal lobe?

A

NGRI criminals had lower activity/glucose metabolism than the control

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126
Q

What was found about the right Amygdala?

A

NGRI criminals had higher activity/glucose metabolism than the control

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127
Q

What was found about the left Amygdala?

A

NGRI criminals had lower activity/glucose metabolism than the control

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128
Q

What did they find about the Corpus Callosum?

A

NGRI criminals had lower activity/glucose metabolism than the control

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129
Q

What is an issue with the sample?

A

The study was only on 41 NGRI criminals and so can’ be applied to others

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130
Q

What is a strength of the design in this study?

A

The matched pairs means there are less participant variables making the results about brain activity more valid e.g. we know their age and schizophrenia isn’t effecting their brain activity

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131
Q

What is a problem with the matching in this study?

A

They couldn’t be matched on all traits e.g. handedness which might impact on their brain activity in the study

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132
Q

Is reliablity a strength or a weakness for Raine?

A

A strength as it is Standardised i.e. the tasks, timings and PET scan so you can easily repeat it to see if it is reliable

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133
Q

What is an issue with validity for Raine?

A

Low in ecological validity as the tasks/PET scan might not represent brain activity in real life situations

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134
Q

What is a strength of a control in Raine?

A

They were taken off their medication before the study which means we know that their medication wouldn’t be impacting on their brain activity

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135
Q

What is a strength of using PET scans?

A

It is Empirical as we can directly measure the glucose metabolism in the brain areas

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136
Q

Why has Raine got issues with protection from harm?

A

Yes- it involves an invasive injection

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137
Q

What was the aim?

A

To see is Schizophenia is genetic and more prevalent in the biological families of Schizophrenics or the adopted families

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138
Q

What was the sample?

A

234 twin pairs (originally 322) from Quebec

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139
Q

123 of the twin pairs were genetically tested to check zygosity- what % agreement was there with the researchers assignment?

A

94%

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140
Q

What were the teachers asked to do?

A

Rate the children on social and physical aggression questions on a 3 point scale of often, sometimes, never

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141
Q

What questions were they asked?

A

e.g. how often do they hit, bit or kick another and for social aggression how often they become friends out of revenge

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142
Q

What were the children asked to do?

A

Circle pictures of the three children in class most likely to meet certain behaviour characteristics

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143
Q

Which of these are descriptors used?

A

e.g. tells mean secrets about another child and gets into fights

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144
Q

What were the results about physical aggression?

A

There is a much higher correlation (nearly double) between MZ than between DZ twins on Physical aggression

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145
Q

What were the results about social aggression?

A

The correlation between the MZ twins was similar to that of the DZ twins

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146
Q

What is the relationship between physical and social aggression?

A

There was a strong positive correlation on teacher ratings between social and physical aggression (0.79)

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147
Q

What causes physical aggression?

A

Genetics

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148
Q

What causes social aggression?

A

Environment

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149
Q

What is a strength of the sample?

A

It is a large sample of twins which makes the study more generalisable

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150
Q

What is a weakness of the sample?

A

It is ethnocentric as all the children were from quebec in canada which means the results about genetics might not apply to other cultures

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151
Q

Is the reliability of Brendgen good or bad?

A

The tests the teachers and students did were standardised AND comparing teacher and child scores means we have inter-rater reliability

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152
Q

What are two problems with using rating scales?

A

They only collected qualitative data so the responses couldn’t be analysed to get statistical information to see if results were due to chance AND The scales can be interpreted differently by the teachers meaning the results might be less valid

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153
Q

What is good about using likert scale questions?

A

Quantitative data was gathered which allows statistical analysis to check if the results were due to chance

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154
Q

Why might protection from harm be an issue?

A

Highlighting the students might impact their relationships with each other

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155
Q

What is a hormone?

A

A chemical messenger which is carried in the blood

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156
Q

What controls and releases hormones?

A

The endocrine system

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157
Q

What are four hormones which link to aggression?

A

Testosterone, Cortisol, Adrenaline and Serotonin

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158
Q

Which hormone balance is largely correlated to aggression?

A

High levels of testosterone correlates positively with aggression

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159
Q

Which brain area does the level of testosterone effect?

A

Amygdala

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160
Q

What effect does testosterone have on the Amygdala in people?

A

It lowers the activation threshold and refractionary period making it easier to fire and fire more

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161
Q

What does testosterone do to the hypothalamus and amygdala in the womb?

A

It decreases the cell growth in those areas

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162
Q

What is Cortisol for?

A

Stress

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163
Q

What is the effect of the Cortisol?

A

It mitigates the testosterone levels (so high cortisol stops high testosterone have a strong effect)

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164
Q

What is Serotonin for?

A

Relaxation/calmness

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165
Q

What is the effect of Serotonin on aggression?

A

High Serotonin correlates with lower aggression

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166
Q

What is Adrenaline for?

A

It plays a role in fight and flight responses so might link to aggression

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167
Q

Which of these did Dabbs et al (1996) show?

A

They found that the fraternities that had the highest average testosterone levels were also more wild and unruly

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168
Q

What did Dabbs et al 1995 show?

A

measured testosterone in the saliva of 692 adult male prisoners. They found higher levels in rapists and violent offenders than in burglars and thieves.

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169
Q

What did Beeman demonstrate?

A

He castrated male mice and found that aggressiveness reduced. He later injected the mice with testosterone which re-established their aggressiveness

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170
Q

What is a criticism of Beeman?

A

Animals brains and systems are different to humans and so the results might not apply to explain human aggression

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171
Q

What is a strength of using hormones to explain aggression?

A

This is an empirical explanation as you can measure the hormone levels directly making it a more objective and credible explanation of aggression

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172
Q

This is a correlational explanation what is a problem with this?

A

The evidence can’t clearly tell us if high testosterone causes aggression or if being aggressive increases testosterone levels

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173
Q

Why is this theory reductionist?

A

It ignores other factors which could cause aggression and focuses only on hormones i.e. ignoring physical brain differences or upbringing

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174
Q

Which of these is an alternative theory saying we might learn aggression from role models around us meaning this theory might be incorrect?

A

Social Learning Theory

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175
Q

Aim

A

To see if there is a genetic basis for schizophrenia using an adoption study method

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176
Q

What was the sample of the study?

A

34 Adoptees with Schizophrenia and 33 controls (and all their families)

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177
Q

What were the adoptees and the control group matched on?

A

Age, gender, age of adoption and Social class of adoptive family

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178
Q

Where is the sample from?

A

Denmark

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179
Q

How did we check the ‘Schizophrenia’ for them and their family members

A

Review medical records

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180
Q

How many family members were looked at?

A

465

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181
Q

How were they all assessed as having ‘schizophrenia spectrum disorder’ or not?

A

4 Psychiatrists completing a blind diagnosis on the medical records

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182
Q

What was a finding about the Schizophrenic patients families?

A

The research found more signs of schizophrenic spectrum disorders in the index participants’ biological family than their adoptive family

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183
Q

What was a finding between the Schizophrenia and control groups families?

A

They also found more spectrum disorders in the index participants’ biological families than in the Controls’ biological families. 8.7% Vs 19%

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184
Q

What is a weakness of the sample of Kety?

A

It is ethnocentric as all the participants are from Denmark so it isn’t representative of a wider population

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185
Q

Are the results from this study reliable?

A

Kety tried to replicate this study at various points and the procedure could be repeated and found similar results

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186
Q

Is the procedure standardised/reliable?

A

Yes- the procedure of accessing medical records and having psychiatrists review them can be easily replicated

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187
Q

What can we say about inter-rater reliablity in Kety?

A

The study is high in inter-rater reliability because there were 4 psychistrists agreeing on the diagnosis

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188
Q

What is a problem with schizophrenia spectrum disorders?

A

It is not a clinical diagnosis as it involves various ‘levels’ of uncertainty so it might be subjective/invalid as a measure of Schizophrenia

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189
Q

What is a problem with adoption studies which is true of Kety?

A

There are shared environmental factors between the adoptee and their shared environment so we cannot separate nature from nurture fully

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190
Q

A neurone is

A

A nerve fibre which carries electrical signals (usually in the brain)

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191
Q

A neurotransmitter is

A

A chemical carried in the blood which spreads messages around the body

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192
Q

What is a synapse?

A

The end of one neurone and the beginning of another which has a gap and information must pass across

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193
Q

What is a vesicle?

A

A ‘bubble’ which is full of neurostransmitters that it can release into the synaptic gap

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194
Q

What is a synaptic gap?

A

The space between two neurones which neurotransmitters must drift through

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195
Q

What is a receptor?

A

An area on the second neurone which neurotransmitters bind to and create a new impulse

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196
Q

What is the role of Dopamine?

A

It creates a sense of reward or enjoyment

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197
Q

What is the effect of illicit drugs on neurotransmitters

A

They can either increase or decrease the neurotransmitters in the synapse

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198
Q

What is the effect on dopamine and the impact that has?

A

It increases the amount causing a feeling of euphoria

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199
Q

What is the effect on GABA and the impact that has?

A

GABA is increased by alcohol and decreases activity in areas of the brain

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200
Q

What did Olds and Milner find?

A

Rats with electrodes in certain areas of the brains are causes euphoria- stimulating these areas become addictive

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201
Q

What happens over time?

A

People build up a tolerance as receptors desensitise so more neurotransmitter is needed to activate them

202
Q

What is withdrawal?

A

You go Your dopamine decreases rapidly and it makes you unhappy, you have physiological symptoms like the shakes

203
Q

How does Cocaine work?

A

It blocks the reuptake of dopamine leading to more in the synapse

204
Q

How does Heroin work?

A

It binds to Opioid receptors in the brain which leads to an increase in Dopamine

205
Q

How does Alcohol work?

A

It increases the GABA amount in the synapse (as well as dopamine) shutting down certain brain areas

206
Q

How does nicotine work?

A

It binds to Acetylcholine receptors which then trigger increased dopamine among other effects

207
Q

What is the acronym to help remember Bowlby’s concepts about attachment?

A

ASCMI

208
Q

What is the ‘A’ in ASCMI?

A

Adaptive

209
Q

What is the ‘S’ in ASCMI?

A

Social Releaser

210
Q

What is the ‘C’ in ASCMI?

A

Critical period

211
Q

What is the ‘M’ in ASCMI?

A

Monotropy

212
Q

What is the ‘I’ in ASCMI?

A

Internal Working model

213
Q

A social releaser is?

A

Things like crying which make a parent stay close and care for the baby

214
Q

What does Adaptive mean?

A

Something which is beneficial to our survival e.g. having parents who love us when we are babies

215
Q

Monotropy is?

A

a single bond considered more important than any other

216
Q

The critical/sensitive period is?

A

where attachment needs to occur for a healthy, normal human to emerge

217
Q

How long is the critical/sensitive period?

A

Around 2.5 years

218
Q

A secure base is?

A

using your parent as a base from which to explore and interact with the world

219
Q

An internal working model is?

A

where your early relationship becomes a schema for future relationships, how they treat you is stored in our memory

220
Q

What is the continuity hypothesis?

A

The idea that our future relationships when we are older are similar to those we had with our parents when young

221
Q

Which part of ASCMI does Robertson and Robertson specifically disagree with?

A

Monotropic bond/Critical period- They showed as long as their was good care it didn’t need to be with the monotropic figure

222
Q

How many of Bowlby’s 44 thieves were considered affectionless Psychopaths?

A

14

223
Q

What did Lorenz show?

A

Critical periods and attachment in general are adaptive and evolved

224
Q

Hazan and Shaver show?

A

IWM is supported- childhood attachment does match adult attachment types

225
Q

Spitz Shows?

A

The critical period is supported, children raised in an institution showed depressiona and behavioural issues

226
Q

Evolutionary theories like this are a problem because?

A

Retrospective and post-hoc, you cannot measure our ancestors and so cannot make concrete judgements about it’s validity

227
Q

Rutter criticised Bowlby for

A

Over focus on the mother and focusing on the separation rather than the cause of separation

228
Q

Schaffer and Emerson found what % of children had multiple bonds (disproving monotropic bonds)

A

27%

229
Q

Why is Bowlby seen as socially controlling and socially sensitive (or lacking temporal validity at least)?

A

Reinforcing gender roles of women staying at home for childcare

230
Q

What is a problem of the concept of the IWM/Schemas?

A

The IWM is not empirical because you cannot directly test them

231
Q

What is attachment?

A

The loving bond between two people where they are not interchangable with others

232
Q

What is the aim of Ainsworth’s study?

A

To see if there are different types of attachment, what behaviours each shows and how parents influence the type?

233
Q

What was the sample in Ainsworth?

A

Mothers and babies from USA (sample size varies depending on which study)

234
Q

What type of observation is carried out in the stranger situation?

A

Controlled, non-participant

235
Q

How many stages are in the strange situation and how long did they last?

A

Eight 3 minute stages but they could be cut short if mother wanted

236
Q

What is separation anxiety?

A

If the chid gets upset when the parent leaves them

237
Q

What is a secure base?

A

If the child uses the parent for comfort before exploring/needing them to explore

238
Q

What is stranger anxiety?

A

If the chid gets upset when interacting with a stranger

239
Q

What is reunion behaviour?

A

How easily they are comforted when their parent returns

240
Q

What is the first and second stage of stranger situation?

A

Mother and child are together in the room playing together with toys

241
Q

What is the third stage of stranger situation?

A

A stranger comes into the room, talks to the mother and attempts engagement with the child in the mothers presence.

242
Q

What is the fourth stage of stranger situation?

A

Mother leaves the room leaving the child and stranger together, the stranger tries to engage and console the child, stranger anxiety is measured.

243
Q

What is the fifth stage of stranger situation?

A

The mother returns and the stranger leaves the room. We look at reunion behaviour

244
Q

What is the sixth stage of stranger situation?

A

The mother then leaves the child alone in the room, separation anxiety is measured.

245
Q

What is the seventh stage of stranger situation?

A

The stranger enters the room with the child alone and attempts to play with the child.

246
Q

What is the eights stage of stranger situation?

A

The mother returns and reunion behaviour is measured.

247
Q

What % of children were insecure avoidant?

A

20

248
Q

What % of children were secure?

A

70

249
Q

What % of children were resistant?

A

10

250
Q

The study concluded that type of attachment is caused by?

A

The level of sensitivity and responsiveness of the parent

251
Q

Secure attachment is caused by?

A

Responsive parenting

252
Q

Avoidant attachment is caused by?

A

Neglectful parenting

253
Q

A secure child shows which behaviours

A

Stranger anxiety, parents as a secure base, separation anxiety and easily comforted on reunion

254
Q

An Avoidant child shows which behaviours

A

No stranger or separation anxiety, explore without needing comfort (not using parents as a secure base), no need for comfort

255
Q

A Resistant child shows which behaviours

A

No secure base,They’re clingy and don’t explore, strong stranger and separation anxiety, difficult to comfort on reunion and may lash out

256
Q

Kagan criticised Ainsworth saying

A

Attachment type is due to a child’s temperament rather than parental behavious

257
Q

Main and Solomon criticised Ainsworth saying

A

There is at least one other type of attachment (disorganised) so her study/theory ignores this

258
Q

What is a strength of Ainsworth for reliablity?

A

It can be replicated to test for reliability in the results about attachment types because it is standardised with the same 8 steps for each child

259
Q

Can you give a weakness (and a however) for the generalisablity of the study?

A

The sample is only american mothers so might not be representative of attachment types in other cultures or father and child interactions, it however did include both male and female infants

260
Q

The study was done covertly on the children using a one-way mirror, this is a strength because?

A

It is more valid as the children don’t know they’re taking part so show no demand characteristics in their interactions with the stranger

261
Q

What is a weakness of conducting the strange situation as a structured observation?

A

It is low in ecological validity because the situation the children are in is artificial and might not apply to how they’d really be separated from mother

262
Q

The study was a controlled environment (in the artifical playroom) we controlled meaning?

A

It is more valid as situational variables like the setting and stranger behaviour don’t influence the children’s behaviour

263
Q

Which EV might effect the results on this study about attachment type

A

whether the child is used to being with others i.e. going to daycare

264
Q

What is the main ethical issue we could say about Ainsworth?

A

Protection from harm as the babies were upset by their mother leaving

265
Q

What is the 3 point procedure for a cross-cultural study?

A

Conduct research in one culture and then do the same procedure in another. Compare the results to see if they’re the same or different. If they’re the same it means it is a universal behaviour and due to nature

266
Q

What was the most common type of attachment around the world-every culture, in all but 1 study, according to Vanijzendoorn?

A

Secure

267
Q

Which culture in Vanijzendoorn had the highest rate of secure children?

A

Great Britain 75%

268
Q

Which culture in Vanijzendoorn had the lowest rate of secure children?

A

China 50%

269
Q

Which culture in Vanijzendoorn had the highest rate of avoidant children?

A

West Germany 35.3%

270
Q

Which culture in Vanijzendoorn had the lowest rate of avoidant children?

A

Japan 5.2%

271
Q

Which culture in Vanijzendoorn had the lowest rate of resistant children?

A

UK 2.8

272
Q

Which culture in Vanijzendoorn had the highest rate of resistant children?

A

Israel 28.8%

273
Q

The difference within cultures in Vanijzendoorn was greater than the difference between cultures?

A

True, 1.5x greater

274
Q

The strange situation procedure used by Vanijzendoorn is ethnocentric?

A

True, It is a westernised procedure and has been theorised not to work in Japan

275
Q

Takahashi and Miyake both found what percentage of avoidant attachment in Japan?

A

0%

276
Q

Sagi found what % of resistant attachment in Israeli kibbutz?

A

50%

277
Q

Grossman and Grossman found what % of Avoidant attachment in Germany?

A

49%

278
Q

What did Durrett (1984) find?

A

In Japanese families where the mother has to leave the child to work attachment types are similar in percentage to Ainsworth’s study

279
Q

What did Sagi (1991) find?

A

In Kibbutz where parents and children live together we see similar attachment percentage to Ainsworth

280
Q

What are strengths of cross-cultural studies in terms of generalisablity?

A

It is less ethnocentric and will apply to more cultures making it more generalisable

281
Q

What is the purpose of cross-cultural research?

A

It lets us see what behaviours are due to nature or nurture

282
Q

What is a problem with conducting research in another culture (in terms of sample)?

A

You might not get a representative sample of that culture, missing subcultures, which might make the results less representative

283
Q

What is a problem of cross-cultural procedures in terms of methods?

A

The procedure might not apply equally in all cultures and impact the results making them less valid

284
Q

What is a problem of cross-cultural procedures in terms of researcher ethnocentrism?

A

There may be bias (or at least misunderstanding) the results from those cultures which reduces the validity.

285
Q

What is the aim of Vanijzendoorn

A

To look for cross-cultural differences in attachment types

286
Q

What was the sample size of Vanijzendorn

A

1990

287
Q

How many cultures were involved in Vanijzendoorn

A

8

288
Q

How many studies were used in Vanijzendoorn?

A

32

289
Q

What method was vanijzendoorn?

A

Meta-analysis

290
Q

What study method was vanijzendoorn looking at across cultures?

A

Strange Situation

291
Q

What filters were put in place to select the studies in Vanijzendoorn?

A

only mothers and children, samples had to be larger than 35, no SEN kids and only studies looking at the 3 types of attachment

292
Q

What was the most common type of attachment around the world-every culture (in all but 1 study)?

A

Secure

293
Q

Which culture had the highest rate of secure children?

A

Great Britain (75%)

294
Q

Which culture had the lowest rate of secure children?

A

China (50%)

295
Q

Which culture had the highest rate of avoidant children?

A

West Germany (35.3%)

296
Q

Which culture had the lowest rate of avoidant children?

A

Japan (5.2%)

297
Q

Which culture had the lowest rate of resistant children?

A

Great Britain (2.8%)

298
Q

Which culture had the highest rate of resistant children?

A

Israel (28.8%)

299
Q

Which culture had the highest rate of resistant children?

A

Israel (28.8%)

300
Q

The difference within cultures was greater than the difference between cultures?

A

True- 1.5x greater

301
Q

The strange situation procedure used by Vanijzendoorn is ethnocentric?

A

True- It is a westernised procedure and has been theorised not to work in Japan

302
Q

What is a strength of the sample of Vanijzendoorn?

A

It included 8 different cultures so we can say it isn’t ethnocentric

303
Q

Which of these is a problem with the sample of Vanijzendoorn?

A

Despite using 8 cultures there is still an imbalance i.e. collectivist vs individualistic AND it only included mothers

304
Q

A problem with a meta-analysis?

A

Publication bias of the chosen studies

305
Q

What effect do the filters have on the validity of this study?

A

Makes it more valid as it eliminates evs e.g. learning disabilities, relationships with others etc

306
Q

Kagan criticised Ainsworth saying

A

Attachment type is due to a child’s temperament rather than parental behavious

307
Q

Main and Solomon criticised Ainsworth saying

A

There is at least one other type of attachment (disorganised) so her study/theory ignores this

308
Q

What is a strength of Strange Situation for reliablity?

A

It can be replicated to test for reliability in the results about attachment types because it is standardised with the same 8 steps for each child

309
Q

Is Vanijzendoorn reliable?

A

Yes the meta-analysis procedure and the filters etc are replicable because they are standardised

310
Q

What is a weakness of conducting the strange situation as a structured observation?

A

It is low in ecological validity because the situation the children are in is artificial and might not apply to how they’d really be separated from mother

311
Q

The study was a controlled environment (in the artifical playroom) we controlled meaning?

A

It is more valid as situational variables like the setting and stranger behaviour don’t influence the children’s behaviour

312
Q

Which EV might effect the results on this study about attachment type

A

whether the child is used to being with others i.e. going to daycare

313
Q

What is the main ethical issue we could say about Ainsworth?

A

Protection from harm as the babies were upset by their mother leaving

314
Q

What is deprivation?

A

Having had an attachment form and then losing it

315
Q

What can cause deprivation?

A

Death, hospitalisation, divorce, daycare/work

316
Q

Signs of short term deprivation include:

A

Protest, Despair, Detachment

317
Q

What is Protest?

A

The child gets upset, cries etc

318
Q

Despair is?

A

When the child shows low emotions, sadness and mopiness

319
Q

Detachment is?

A

The bond between parent and child is and takes time to recover

320
Q

What can long term deprivation lead to?

A

A poor/damaged internal working model

321
Q

What is a problem with a damaged internal working model?

A

It can lead to Affectionless Psychopathy, Delinquency & relationship issues

322
Q

What is affectionless psychopathy?

A

A lack of remorse, guilt for actions and caring for others

323
Q

What can help to reduce deprivation effects?

A

Substitute care like Robertson, Key workers in daycare as an alternative attachment, Being part time at nursery, Seeing both parents, visiting hours at hospital, Maintain routines

324
Q

What did Robertson discover?

A

They discovered children in hospital went through PDD

325
Q

What did Bowlby 44 thieves do/find?

A

Interviewed 44 criminal teens and 44 controls about childhood and clinical interviews. They found 17 of the criminals had separations vs 2 in control. 14 were Affectionless vs 0 in control.

326
Q

What did Olsvasky do/find?

A

fMRI scanned 33 instutionalised children and a control. The parents assessed their child for indiscriminate friendliness. He found that the institutionalised children did show less difference in amygdala functioning between mothers and strangers compared to the control group.

327
Q

What did Spitz do/find?

A

Institutionalised children were more likely to show depression, especially after 3 months and it took months for bond to record

328
Q

What did Goldfarb do/find?

A

studied 15 children who had stayed in an institution up to the age of 3 before being fostered. He compared them to a group of children who had been fostered from 6 months of age. He found that those who were fostered later showed more problems in adolescence compared to those who were fostered early

329
Q

What did Rutter do/find?

A

Studied boys and found . He found that the majority did not become delinquent, but for those who did the separation usually involved other stressful factors such as a parent in prison, mental health issues, and family breakdown. This was what caused the issues

330
Q

What did Skeels and Dye do/find?

A

Compared children from a care home to those from an institution Children looked after in the care home had an improved IQ over an 18 month period, where as children from institute had a reduced IQ

331
Q

What did Follan and Minnis do/find?

A

Relooked at the 44 thieves and decided that affectionless psychopathy would nowadays be classed as reactive attachment disorder and it is the mistreatment rather than separation which causes it.

332
Q

What is an issue with many studies like Robertson and Robertson, Goldfarb etc

A

They are case studies with small samples so are not representative of a wider population

333
Q

What are applications of research into deprivation?

A

They can inform care e.g. using key workers and named nurses to reduce deprivation

334
Q

What is an issue with studies like Goldfarb which Rutter highlights?

A

It might be the mistreatment/institutionalisation which causes the issues not the separation itself

335
Q

What is a strength of Olsvasky?

A

It is empirical as measures brain activity

336
Q

What is a weakness of Bowlby 44 thieves using interviews?

A

Bowlby used retrospective interviews and so bias/social desirability is an issue even though they gather large amounts of data

337
Q

What is an issue with much of the research looking at institutions etc?

A

They lack temporal validity as institution and hospital policies have changed

338
Q

What is a strength of using a control group like many deprivation studies do?

A

They allow for a comparision with the deprived group which allows for a more valid comparison to see the effects of deprivation

339
Q

Privation is?

A

Having never had an attachment figure/attachment made

340
Q

Briefly describe Genie’s upbringing

A

She was locked up, rarely spoken to, strapped to a potty chair, discovered at 13

341
Q

Briefly describe The Czech twins upbringing

A

They were locked up by their dad and step mam, found at age 7 and were malnourished

342
Q

Briefly describe the case of Bulldog banks/Freud and Dann

A

They had been brought up in concentration camps throughout the war and then brought to the UK

343
Q

What were the Czech twins like when found?

A

They hadn’t been taught to speak, had no knowledge, of eating habits and were very frightened of people, and of the dark

344
Q

What is evidence from Genie privation can be overcome

A

She was able to learn some language and formed bonds with her carers

345
Q

What is evidence from Genie privation cannot be overcome

A

She never developed normal grammar and syntax and was easily set back losing the language she had

346
Q

What tests were conducted on Genie

A

EEG scans, observations and language tests

347
Q

What evidence did the Czech twins provide that privation can be overcome?

A

They had normal IQ development by 14, had normal lives and careers

348
Q

What behaviours were shown by the children of Bulldog Banks

A

They showed very strong attachments with one another, were distrusting of adults and would bite them

349
Q

How does Bulldog Banks show that privation can be somewhat overcome?

A

improved after they were found i.e. made bonds with adults, though one had later emotional issues

350
Q

Why isn’t Genie a good case to look at Pirvation?

A

EEG scans show that she may have had learning disabilities from birth

351
Q

What did Tizard find about privation?

A

He looked at institutionalised children who were either adopted or restored. At 16 the majority of the adoptive mothers felt that their child was deeply attached to them vs only a half of the restored children. However, ex-institutional children had poorer relationships with peers than a comparison group

352
Q

What did Rutter find about privation?

A

He looked at Romanian Orphans and found Romanian children adopted after 6 months old made progress, they still continued to experience significant problems, such as difficulties forming attachments and social interaction. These behaviours included indiscriminate friendliness, a lack of selectivity in attachment figures, and an inappropriate willingness to approach and interact with strangers

353
Q

What could an issue be with generalisability of these studies?

A

They are case studies, so are unique

354
Q

Other than generalisability what is an issue with all these case studies?

A

They have control issues with extraneous variables making them less valid i.e. age, learning disabilities etc

355
Q

What criticism could be levelled at the studies about Czech twins & Bulldogbanks

A

They might be deprivation rather than privation as they had a chance to form bonds with each other

356
Q

What additional issue did Genie have that the other individuals didn’t which makes it difficult to figure out if privation can be overcome?

A

Learning difficulties

357
Q

Which of the studies has issues with Temporal validity because the situation it was studying would be unlikely to occur nowadays due to changes in ‘institutional’ care i.e. encouraging staff not to bond with children?

A

The likes of Rutter and Tizard because they look at institutions which are very different now than what they were at the time

358
Q

What is daycare?

A

Care provided to a child by someone other than a parent, usually in the form of a day nursery

359
Q

What is the correct ratio for children under 2 to members of staff and why is this good?

A

3:1 so they can provide enough attention and cognitive stimulation?

360
Q

What is a key worker and why are they neeeded?

A

The named member of staff responsible for the wellbeing of specific students who they are to attach to

361
Q

What level of qualification do nursery staff need to be classed as ‘good quality’ in Campbell?

A

at least Level 2 so that they’re trained in proper methods of childcare and cognitive stimulation

362
Q

Why is low staff turnover good for children?

A

It lets children form attachments and the children to understand the children better

363
Q

What are the benefits of daycare?

A

Improved confidence, possibly improved cognition/language, more sociable (or understand social rules e.g. sharing)

364
Q

What are the drawbacks of daycare?

A

Effects attachment style, makes children more aggressive

365
Q

What did EPPE/Sylva (2004) find about disadvantage background?

A

Daycare was more important/effective for these children

366
Q

What did EPPE/Sylva (2004) find about hours in daycare?

A

Part-time provides no significant difference to children than full-time

367
Q

What did Andresson find about daycare?

A

children who went to high quality day care before the age of one were more socially and cognitively advanced by the age of 8.

368
Q

What did Li find out about Daycare?

A

Children in high quality daycare improved their academic abilities, memory abilities and language abilities

369
Q

What did Belsky and Rovine find about daycare?

A

that children who were put into day care for 20 hours a week, before they were one, had an insecure avoidant attachment

370
Q

What did Campbell find out about daycare hours?

A

Children who spent long days in day care (e.g. from 8am to 6pm) under age 3 were less socially competent. Children who spent more days in day care, but shorter days, were more socially competent

371
Q

What did Clarke & Stewart find about daycare?

A

Children who had attended nurseries could cope better in social situations, and were able to interact better with peers, compared with children previously looked after in family settings. They also found it didn’t effect attachment style

372
Q

What did Sammons find about daycare?

A

Analysed data and showed that there is a slight risk of antisocial behaviour when children spend more than 20 hours per week in nurseries.

373
Q

What did DiLalla find about daycare?

A

negative correlation between the amount of time spent in day care and pro-social behaviour

374
Q

What did Shea find about daycare?

A

Children became more sociable the longer they were in day care

375
Q

What did EPPE find about cognitive and social development?

A

high quality day care benefitted cognitively and socially and they showed more independence

376
Q

What did Pennebaker find about daycare?

A

Shy children do less well in daycare settings and will receive less benefits

377
Q

What did ALSPAC show about daycare?

A

Looking at 14,000 children daycare had no impact on antisocial behaviour or aggression

378
Q

What did Tizard find about daycare?

A

It had less cognitive benefits than being at home due to greater attention and enrichment in conversations from mothers

379
Q

What did the NICHD find about daycare?

A

Children in daycare had more aggression and 3 times the amount of temper tantrums

380
Q

The aim of Li was?

A

To see the effects of high and low quality care on children’s cognitve abilities

381
Q

What was the sample of Li?

A

1364 families from USA

382
Q

At one month old the children were assessed on things like ethnicity, birth order, maternal age, parental education etc- why?

A

To account for those as extraneous/confounding variables

383
Q

What was the observation conducted in Li?

A

O.R.C.E 44mins given in both infant and preschool ages

384
Q

On the observation scores above what were deemed as ‘high quality’ (and below as ‘low quality’)

A

3

385
Q

What traits did they look for to label something as ‘high quality’

A

Sensitivity to needs, cognitive stimulation and fostering exploration

386
Q

When was the end of the infant period?

A

24m

387
Q

What tests were conducted during the infant period?

A

Bayley mental development index

388
Q

When was the end of the pre-school phase?

A

54m

389
Q

What tests were conducted during the infant period?

A

Woodcock & Johnson cognitive achievement battery and Preschool Language scale

390
Q

What result was found about high quality infant care?

A

Those in high quality infant care had improved cognitive scores

391
Q

What was found about preschool?

A

High-quality preschool causes improvement in cognitive and language, reading, and maths results.

392
Q

What was found about the children who went from high quality care in infancy to low quality care in pre-school

A

They lost out on the cognitive advantages they had (compared to the low-low kids) other than in memory

393
Q

Where did Li get her data from?

A

The NICHD

394
Q

A strength and a weakness of Li’s sample is?

A

Relatively large (so more generalisable) but ethnocentric (so less generalisable)

395
Q

What is a strength for the reliablity of Li?

A

The various measures like ORCE, Bayley Developmental index etc were standardised making the study more reliable

396
Q

This study has triangulation and so is more valid because?

A

There were various measures like Bayley Development index and Woodcock Johnson to compare the results against each other

397
Q

Why did they look at things like birth order and maternal age at 1 month?

A

By looking for the confoudning variables like birth order they can be ruled out as a factor making this studies results about the impact of daycare

398
Q

What is an issue with li using Secondary data?

A

The data wasn’t gathered by her so she cannot be fully sure it was gathered correctly and it might not have been fully operationalised in the best way for this study

399
Q

Is Li high in ecological validity?

A

Yes- they are children in their normal daycare setting, so the results about the impact should apply to real life

400
Q

Why would this study have low validity?

A

There will be lots of Extraneous Variables over the years of daycare which impact on the children’s development which cannot be accounted for

401
Q

Why is Li reductionist?

A

It used 3.0 as a cutoff for high quality rather than anything more nuanced and only looked at cognitive development

402
Q

This study mainly collects quantiative data, why is this good?

A

It allows for comparison of the effects of daycare which can be statistically analysed to see if it significant and it’s more objective

403
Q

Which gender does autism effect more often?

A

Males

404
Q

What % of autistic people are male?

A

75 percent

405
Q

What do we mean by Autism Spectrum?

A

Autism is a spectrum disorder going from low end (not requiring much support/high functioning) to a high end

406
Q

What % of autistic people have savant abilities?

A

Only approximately 10 percent of people with Autism

407
Q

Autistic people will often like?

A

Routine, rules and order

408
Q

What abilities can autistic people often have issues with?

A

Reading and understanding emotions in others AND social interactions

409
Q

What is true about the speech of autistic people?

A

They have delayed speech (speaking years late or not at all in some cases) and speech difficulties

410
Q

What are sensory issues we see with autistic people?

A

Unusual responses to sensory experiences, such as indifference to pain/temperature, adverse responses to specific sounds or textures, or excessive smelling or touching of objects

411
Q

The EMB theory of autism states that autism develops as a result of?

A

Excess exposure to testosterone in the womb

412
Q

EMB is more common in males than females. The ratio is?

A

a 3 to 1 ratio

413
Q

What is the effect of exposure to testosterone in the womb?

A

Brain structure takes on more masculine qualities in its structure

414
Q

What is a brain difference we see with autistic people?

A

The amygdala is already larger by around 3 years of age and continues to expand faster than in nonautistic control children for several years thereafter, this was suggested to be linked with increased social impairment

415
Q

What ‘type’ of person are autistic people?

A

Extreme Systemisers to a greater extent than an average male

416
Q

A systemiser is?

A

Someone who looks for rules, patterns and structure

417
Q

This theory can explain why there is a greater ratio of males with autism to females

A

True- as they already have male brain/testosterone exposure

418
Q

How can this explain some of the abilities and focuses seen by some autistic people?

A

This theory explains why special abilities tend to be in maths/spatial ability etcas these are helped by systemising skills

419
Q

The fact children with autism are low in ‘empathising ability’ can explain

A

Why they have difficulty reading others/social interactions

420
Q

The fact children with autism are low in ‘empathising ability’ can explain

A

Lack of language abilities/delayed language

421
Q

What did Baron-Cohen found which supports EMB?

A

They did have higher levels of testosterone in the womb

422
Q

What did Baron-Cohen found which conflicts EMB?

A

Other hormones such as progesterone and cortisol were also higher in the womb

423
Q

Falter (2007) found what which supports EMB?

A

Autistic children didt better at asks like mental rotation and figure disembedding

424
Q

What did Falter (2007) find which contradicts this theory?

A

Autistic children preformed worse on ‘male tasks’ like targetting tasks

425
Q

Wen & Wen (2014) found

A

Autistic children had differences in the Amygdala when scanned

426
Q

What is a strength of this theories testability?

A

It is empirical as it can measure brain structure and hormone exposure directly

427
Q

Give a validity point about EMB theory

A

This theory has face validity as it is able to explain traits seen in those with autism

428
Q

Why is ToM an issue for this theory?

A

It suggests that a cognitive deficit is the cause of autism not testosterone in the womb

429
Q

Does EMB theory have issues with cause and effect?

A

Yes- the research is correlational so we don’t know if testoserone in the womb is a cause of autism or a result of a child with autism

430
Q

What is a weakness of this theory related to the hormone exposure?

A

There are other hormonal differences like cortisol, progesterone etc which could be an influence

431
Q

The ToM theory suggests that autism is caused by

A

A cognitive deficit the impaired Theory of Mind

432
Q

What is a theory of mind?

A

The ability to understand the perspective of others, the ability to decentre

433
Q

What issues would an impaired theory of mind lead to in children?

A

Difficulty in reading others emotions and social interactions and issues with pretend play amongst others

434
Q

When does Theory of Mind usually develop in children?

A

Around 2 years of age

435
Q

A systemiser is?

A

Someone who looks for rules, patterns and structure

436
Q

What does Systemising have to do with ToM?

A

Since they cannot read others they use systemising skills to make sense of the world around them

437
Q

Does ToM explain why there is a greater ratio of males with autism to females

A

False- it doesn’t comment on gender ratios

438
Q

The fact children with autism are low in ‘empathising ability’/lack ToM can explain

A

Why they have difficulty reading others/social interactions

439
Q

What trait of autism can TOM not explain?

A

The male to female ratio

440
Q

Why is EMB an issue for this theory?

A

It suggests that hormones are the cause for autism in the womb and the cognitve deficits are a result of that not the cause

441
Q

Does ToM have issues with cause and effect?

A

Yes- the research is correlational so we don’t know if deficit of ToM causes autism or is a result of having autism

442
Q

Is ToM empirical?

A

No- you cannot measure thoughts/Theory of Mind directly

443
Q

What does the Sally-Anne test show?

A

Autistic children have difficulty with ToM tasks identifying what sally knows whereas ‘normal’ children and those with down syndrome don’t

444
Q

What does the eyes task by Baron-Cohen show?

A

Adults with autism have difficulty with ToM tasks whereas neurotypical adults and those with Tourettes don’t

445
Q

What did Schick (2007) show?

A

Deaf children with hearing parents also fail ToM tests suggesting it is more about language deficits rather than autism

446
Q

What did Sheeran (2013) show?

A

There is no difference in ToM skills between children who are neurotypical and autistic i.e. mental state reasoning

447
Q

What is CBT based on?

A

Cogntive Psychology/negative thoughts

448
Q

What does CBT focus on helping Autistic children with?

A

Anxiety which is caused by their autistic traits

449
Q

How does CBT work?

A

Altering the negative/dysfunctional thoughts which cause anxiety. Identify, Challenge, Change/Replace

450
Q

How is CBT conducted?

A

One to one with a therapist weekly

451
Q

What is the first step of CBT for autistic people?

A

Identify the situations and THOUGHTS which cause anxiety with the therapist?

452
Q

What is the second step of CBT for autistic children?

A

They challenge their anxiety inducing thoughts by looking for evidence

453
Q

What is the final stage of CBT for autistic children?

A

Changing the maladaptive thoughts which cause anxiety by replacing them with better ones

454
Q

What is the ABC model for CBT?

A

Activating event, belief, consequence

455
Q

Why is CBT possibly difficult for autistic people?

A

People with autism might find it difficult to recognise emotions and abstract thoughts needed in CBT

456
Q

What are the common alterations to make CBT more accessible to those with Autism?

A

Repitition, visual cues i.e. thermometer rather than a ten point scale

457
Q

What did Sofronoff find?

A

CBT helped the children have less anxiety and identify strategies to reduce anxiety

458
Q

What did Wood find?

A

It was found to be effective just after the therapy and at least 3 months later

459
Q

How might ABA be better than CBT?

A

It focuses on a narrow set of behaviours i.e. just anxiety so it is less useful than ABA

460
Q

What is good about CBT being individualised?

A

It is individually tailored i.e. different causes of anxiety/thoughts so can be more useful/effective

461
Q

Is CBT for autism long lasting?

A

It should be able to bring about lasting effects as it teaches a skill

462
Q

Why is CBT better than ABA?

A

It is less socially controlling as it doesn’t change behaviours we dislike but rather focuses on their wellbeing

463
Q

Why mght CBT not be appropriate for autistic children?

A

It requires language and cognitive abilities which they might find too difficult to engage with

464
Q

What is an issue with the testability of CBT?

A

The effects of reduction in anxiety isn’t directly empirical so the effects might not be valid

465
Q

What is ABA based on?

A

Operant conditioning

466
Q

The A in ‘ABC’ stands for

A

Antecedant, the behaviour such as the question which prompts the autistic child

467
Q

The B in ‘ABC’ stands for

A

Behaviour, what the autistic child does e.g. responding to the question or instruction

468
Q

The C in ‘ABC’ stands for

A

Consequence, wor not by the therapisthether they are rewarded

469
Q

What behaviours does ABA focus on?

A

Socially significant behaviours e.g. communication, food refusal

470
Q

What happens when we see ‘positive’ behaviours we want to see i.e. eye contact

A

They are positively reinforced with a reward

471
Q

What happens when we see ‘negative’ behaviours we do not want to see i.e. food refusal

A

Nothing, they are ignored. We restate original request/prompt

472
Q

Why do we ignore negative behaviours shown by autistic children?

A

So they go extinct without reinforcement, thus reducing them

473
Q

Why do we reward the ‘positive’ behaviours?

A

To increase their occurrence

474
Q

How is the therapy conducted?

A

one to one with a therapist over many intensive hours and it is individualised to that specitic autistic child

475
Q

What is discrete trial training?

A

Breaking down complicated behaviours into simpler steps which can be rewarded to build behaviour through shaping

476
Q

What did Lovaas find?

A

47% of children undergoing ABA were able to achieve ‘normal’ school functioing vs only 2% in control

477
Q

What does Gale find about ABA?

A

It was effective in reducing food refusal behaviour

478
Q

What did Warren find?

A

The research into ABA has not shown consistent enough results to make claims about its effectiveness

479
Q

Why is ABA better than CBT?

A

ABA is accessible/effective for most levels of the autism spectrum as it doesn’t require specific skills from the children

480
Q

What did Gale find?

A

ABA increased food acceptance from the children involved

481
Q

What did Cebula find?

A

ABA improves the interactions between the autistic child and their siblings

482
Q

Why is ABA being individualised good?

A

It makes it more effective because it is individually tailored to the behaviours the child needs to work on and the rewards they will respond to

483
Q

What are arguments ABA long lasting or not?

A

It has been shown to work for a long while after the therapy however if you aren’t rewarding them consistently then the behaviours might stop

484
Q

What is a major issue many have with autism?

A

It is socially controlling as it alters children’s behaviour to what we see as important but might not be what they want

485
Q

What is an ethical issue with ABA?

A

It is said to have ethical issues as the therapy can be distressing for the child

486
Q

What sort of abilities can CBT not help with?

A

It might struggle with things like increasing perspective taking and understanding emotions

487
Q

What is the purpose of cross cultural research?

A

To identify if a behaviour is due to nature (universal) or due to nurture (culturally specific) and make comparisons between cultures

488
Q

How do we do cross cultural research?

A

conduct the same procedure in multiple countries/cultures and compare results

489
Q

What are three benefits of cross cultural research?

A

Reduces ethnocentric bias
Provides appropriate measures of behaviour if it works cross culturally
Gain understanding of impact of culture on behaviour

490
Q

What are three weaknesses of cross cultural research?

A

Specific research methods may not apply in certain locations
May lead to an imposed etic
Can overlook cultural differences if the researcher does not understand the culture
May not represent all subcultures

491
Q

In Ainsworths research in the USA, she found what percentage of children were securely attached?

A

75%

492
Q

In Ainsworths research in the USA, she found what percentage of children had avoidant attachment?

A

20%

493
Q

In Ainsworths research in the USA, she found what percentage of children had resistant attachment?

A

10%

494
Q

Sagi researched attachment in which country?

A

Isreal

495
Q

Describe Sagi’s results for all three attachment styles

A

Secure - 37%
Avoidant - 13%
Resistant - 50%

496
Q

Where did Grossman and Grossman do research into attachment?

A

Germany

497
Q

Describe the results Grossman and Grossman found for all attachment types

A

Secure - 33%
Avoidant - 49%
Resistant - 18%

498
Q

Where did Miyake conduct his research?

A

Japan

499
Q

Describe Miyake’s results for all attachment styles

A

Secure - 68%
Avoidant - 0%
Resistant - 32%

500
Q

What cultural factor can explain the high % of avoidant children in Germany?

A

They tend to prioritise independence in their children so encourage them to play alone

13C (7 decks)

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