Cognition Exam 4

Question 1

Briefly describe evidence suggesting that language is universal

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Answer 1

language is universal and hard-wired meaning that it’s genetically programmed to speak and understand language.
Evidence:
Language is universal because they all have:
- rules
- nouns & verbs
- questions
- can be used to discuss past, present & future
- flexibility in being able to create an unmlimited # of words

Question 2

Briefly describe the behavioral vs. nativist positions on language (a.k.a. Skinner vs. Chomsky).

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Answer 2

Behavioral position:
proposed B.F. Skinner (1957)- he argued lanaguage is learned through reinforcement
Nativist Postion:
proposed by Chomsky (1957) - he claimed that language is coded within our genes

Question 3

Be able to describe and distinguish between phonemes and morphemes

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Answer 3

Phoneme: a unit of sound. If it’s changed then it changes the meaning of the word
Ex: dear and deer
Morpheme: a unit of language that has meaning or grammatical function.
One morpheme: car or table
Two morphemes: bedrooms or cars

Question 4

Define psycholinguistics

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Answer 4

it is the study of psychological processes by which humans acquire and process language .

Question 5

What is the phonemic restoration effect?

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Answer 5

Person’s ability to “fill in” missing phonemes based on the context of a sentence and portion of words presented.
This is because language perception is constructive.

Question 6

What is speech segmentation?

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Answer 6

Speech segmentation means that even though speech is continuous, we are still able to percieve words being seperate from each other. However, with an unknown lanuage, we have difficulties segmenting speech.
So when listening to someone speak a language we don’t know that’s why it appears as they are speaking so fast.

Question 7

How do we perform speech segmentation?

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Answer 7

People know how to perform speech segmentation because of CONTEXT & STATISTICAL LEARNING

Context -
Pollach & Pickett (1964): recorded conversations between participants while they were waiting for the “experiment”
They discovered that particiapnts could only identify 50% of the words even though they had spoken them because they had no context of the conversation
Therefore, context is imporatnt to be able to percieve words being seperate from each other.

Statistical Learning -
Being able to identify patterns and structures witihin sensory input (specifically language)
For example, some sounds are much more likely to be at the end of word (-rk) while other are at the start (-kr)
8 month old infants use statistical learning to be able to segment speech

Question 8

Describe the lexical decision task. How does word frequency affect reaction time in this task?

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Answer 8

The lexical decision task: is when someone reads a string of letters presented to them and they have to determine whether it forms a real word or non-word, as quickly as possible.
Word Frequency affects persons reaction time in this task because for words that we don’t know the meaning of, it takes us longer to access in our brain.
High frequency words: words that we hear a lot
Low frequency words: words that we don’t hear a lot
Our eye movements when reading - fixation time is longer for low-frequency words, therefore our reaction time is longer.

Question 9

Describe lexical ambiguity and lexical priming.

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Answer 9

Lexical ambiguity: when words have more than one meaning.
Context clears ambiguity after ALL meanings have been accessed.
Our brain identifies all different meanings of the word and chooses which definition fits appropriatley with the context.
- This allows for our brain to prime all possible words, which leads to a faster reaction time

Lexical priming: stimulus activates a representation of many possible meaning of a word.
- we respond more rapidly if activation is still present when the stimulus is presented again.

Question 10

Distinguish between syntax and semantics. What effects do syntactic and semantic violations produce (in terms of electrical activity) in the brain?

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Answer 10

Syntax: the rules for combining words into sentences
Semantics: meanings of words and sentences

Effects of syntactic and semantic violations in terms of electrical activity in the brain:
- event related potentail (ERP)and brain imaging studies have shown syntax an semantics are associated with different mechanisms
- ERP used with EEG: this test looks at the average electrical response of the brain over many trials with a certain stimulus
- SEMANTIC VIOLATION creates a larger N400 potential/component.
- semantic violation is when the meaning of a word doesn’t makes sense in a sentence
- SYNTACTICAL VIOLATION creates the P600
- this violation suggests wrong grammar of a word used in a sentence

*syntax and semantics are involved with different mechanisms in the brain

Question 11

Describe the syntax-first (a.k.a. “garden path” model) and the interactionist approach to sentence parsing. What evidence supports each model?

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Answer 11

**Syntax-first approach: **claims that we use syntax first then semantics. As grammatical structure of a sentence determines parsing.
The garden path model means that being led down the garden path means to be decieved. It is evidence for the syntax-first approach.
- If sentences are not written properly, they can decieve someone into thinking that a word goes with the current phrase, instead of a later phrase.

**Interactionist Approach:
** semantics influence processing as one reads a sentence
- this approach claims that we use syntax and semantics at the same time when we are putting words into phrases.
- evidence: Tannehaus (1995) when he conducted an eye movement study and discovered that people’s eye movements changes when they were revising their interpretation of a sentence.

Question 12

What is meant by coherence?
How do we create it?

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Answer 12

coherence refers to the representation of text in ones mind, allowing us to relate information to another part of the text.

We create coherence using INFERENCES:
- anaphoric inferences: connects objects and people
-* causual inferences:* make inferences that events in one clause is caused by events in the previous sentence
-* Instrumental inferences:* making inferences about tools or methods.

Question 13

Describe the situation model of understanding stories. Provide evidence.

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Answer 13

Situation model: describes the mental representation of what a text is about.
- we represent the story as if we are the protagonist.

Evidence:
- Horton (2003) claimed that if the model was correct then it should be easier to make judgements about objects more visible to the protagonist.
- - “Melanie ran downstairs and threw herself onto the couch. The horror movie was on TV. She opened a bag of chips and dug right in. She watched a vampire stalk the helpless victim. She had never seen this movie before.”

o Blocked (someone standing in front of the TV): melanie’s mom appeared in front of the TV. She told melanie not to forget about her hw”

o Unblocked (someone not standing in front of the TV): melanie’s mother appeared behind the TV. She told melanie not to forget about her hw”

o Asked the person being told this story: was the victim being stalked by a vampire
 With blocked situation, person took a longer amount of time to respond to the question (~16500 ms)
 With unblocked situation, person was faster to respond to the question (~15200 ms). This supports the situation model!!

Question 14

What are the common types of speech errors?

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Answer 14

Speech errors are rare, as they occur once or twice per every 1K words.

• Error: Phoneme exchanges. This follows the consanant vowel rule; which is when we exchange consanants for consonants and vowels for vowels
• Error: word exchange. exchanging a noun for a noun, or verb for a verb.
• Error: Word substitution. Depends on the structure of language and the persons prior knowledge. Words might sound very similarly.

*categories of speech errors are NOT random

Question 15

Describe the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis. What cross-cultural findings support this hypothesis?

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Answer 15

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: claims that language influences (or determines) thought. It is an example of linguistic determinism (concept that language and its structures limit and determine human knowledge or thought).

Evidence:
- Gordon (2004): Piraha tribe of Brazil has limited words referring to number (one, two or many). This causes them to be unable to make comparisons involving more than 3 objects.
- Roberson (2000): Had two cultures of people (british & berinmo tribe). Saw that they had differences in how participants assigned names to color chips.
British culture assigned 8 basic colors and the Berinmo assigned only 5 basic colors.
So, Roberson suggested that language affected the way that we see color because of the number of catergories that were assigned.

Question 16

Name the brain areas involved with the production and comprehension of spoken language. Where are these areas located?

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Answer 16

Language is represented almost exclusively in the left hemisphere in about 95% of people.
Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area are invovled in production and comprehension of spoken language.
- Wernicke’s area is located in the left superior temporal gyrus and is involved with UNDERSTANDING language and word choice
- Broca’s area is located in the left inferior frontal lobe and it is involved with the PRODUCTION of speech and representation of grammmar. Also functions similarly to the pre-motor cortex, as it plans for motor movements.

Question 17

What are the effects of damaging areas involved with the production and comprehension of spoken language?

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Answer 17

If either Wernicke’s area or Broca’s area is damaged, then it will result in Aphasia.
- Wernicke’s Aphasia: caused after there is damage to the area. Followed with symptoms of having difficulties understanding language and problems with word choice.
- Broca’s aphasia: caused after damage to the area, followed by symptoms of having trouble speaking and problems with grammar.

Question 18

What is the process that occurs when we speak?

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Answer 18

1) Thought goes to Wernicke’s area, where we pick out the sound images of words.
2) Once we identify what sound images we want to say, the information is transferred over a white matter pathway (arcuate fasciculus- connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s area).
3) Broca’s area then arranges the words in the correct order (grammar) and issues commands to the pre-motor cortex involved with controlling the face and rest of the vocal apparatus.
a. Commands are issued through the cranial nerves to vocal apparatus = speaking!

Question 19

Descibe what is meant by “reasoning”

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Answer 19

Reasoning is a cognitive process beginning with limited information and we come to conclusions to extend that information - extended by probability or estimation

Reasoning is constructive.
*anything constructive will lead to many errors.

Question 20

Describe the process of deductive (definite) reasoning

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Answer 20

Deductive reasoning allows for definite conclusions.
Syllogisms: contain two premises and a conclusion
Categorical syllogism (describes a relation between 2 categories). A relationship described by using “all, none or some”

Example of syllogism:
- Premise 1: all birds are animals
- premise 2: all animals eat food
- conclusion: therefore, all birds eat food.

Question 21

What’s the difference btwn valid and invalid conclusions. Does validity = truth? Explain.

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Answer 21

Valid conclusions only occur if BOTH premises are TRUE. (something can be logically valid but false, if one of the premises is false)

Syllogisms are valid if: conclusion is logical from its two premises
- P.1 ; all A are B
- P.2 ; all B are C
- Conc. ; therfore all A are C

People usually think that because the syllogism seems believable then its valid, but that’s not the case.
- when a syllogism is LESS believable we are more likely to claim its invalid.

Question 22

What is the belief bias?

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Answer 22

The belief bias: if the syllogism is true or it agrees with the person’s beliefs, it is more likely to be judged as valid.

• Valid syllogisms that are not believable – we are less likely to judge them as valid.
• Invalid syllogisms that are believable, we judge them valid most of the time.

Done through evaluation: asking people if conclusion follows logically from the premises
Errors in eval.
- atmosphere effect; use of words 9(all, some or none
- belief bias

Question 23

what is the wason selection task? How do people typically perform on it?

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Answer 23

the wason selection task (4-card problem)
- 4 different cards are presented in front of someone: E, K, 4, 7
o Rule is: for every card with a vowel, the other side will have an even #.
 People then have to identify which cards to choose
 Most people choose E and 4- which proves confirmation bias (looking for information that will agree with the rule and dismissing others that don’t)
* Choosing E is a good choice. 4 is not.
* The correct choice would be 7 because it will be able to disprove the rule.
 Because the suggested rule is so abstract, most people get it wrong. The more concrete the rule is, the better people do.
* There’s less confirmation bias from people in real-world circumstances.

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Question 24

**What role do concreteness and permissions play in terms of people’s accuracy on the Wason selection task? **

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Answer 24

Affirming the antecedent (modus ponens)
Affirming the consequent (modus tollens)
When there’s a permission involved and the problem is concrete, we perform better and denying the consequent (modus tollens)
- tooby study- shows that we don’t require permission schemas, but some cognitive structures are used to detect cheaters efficiently

Question 25

Briefly discuss how evolutionary principles can explain performance on the Wason selection task.

Answer 25

Social Exchange theory- people cooperate in mutually beneficial ways.
- This is related to evolution because we have evolved in such a way that cognitively we are good at detecting cheaters.
Cosmides and Tooby
- Created unfamiliar situations where cheating could occur & participants did well
*detecting the cheater is important.
- Controversy: are permissions necessary to improve performance on Wason Selection task?

Question 26

what are the major differences between deductive and inductve reasoning>?

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Answer 26

Deductive reasoning
- Allows for definite conclusions
- Syllogisms can be categorized
- Syllogism can only be valid if the conclusion follows logically from the 2 premises
o Validity is not equal to truth
Inductive reasoning
- Conclusions are suggested, rather than definite
- observations lead to generalizations
- data leads to theories
- the strength of the conclusion is based on
- representation of observations
-ex: are college students a good representation of the whole human population as a whole? No.
- sample needs to represent the population in which you are trying to generalize
- number of observations
- ex: a thousand observations is better than one, increases accuracy
- the quality of observations
- rounding to the nearest second is not as good as rounding to nearest millisecond
People use inductive reasoning a lot more than deductive

Question 27

Describe the representativeness and availability heurisitscs. How can they lead to errors in reasoning?

Answer 27

Representative heuristic: when we encounter a NEW person, place or thing we judge the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent or match certain prototypes
- we then assign characteristics to the new thing without knowing anything else about it, causing us to ignore relevant information.
- It also causes us to ignore the conjuction rule (basic rule of probability)
-  anytime you put the word “and” in a sentence, you narrow the set size.

Availability heuristic: estimating the likelihood of events based on how well we remember them.
- if we remeber something more easily (especially if its vivid), then we assume such events are in common.

• example: odds of dying in a plane crash
   People think of airplanes as dangerous or fearful because they only remember all of the negative things being published in the news and not all of the safe flights that occur every day.
  o causes us to think the wrong thing!

Question 28

Describe the base rate problem.

related to people being bad at estimating probability.

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Answer 28

The base rate problem is that people will overestimate the probability that someone who tests positive for a disease has it.
This is because they don’t take the base rate of the prevalence of the disease into account and we misunderstand what a false positive is.

Question 29

What is the economic utility theory? What are the problems with this theory?

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Answer 29

Economic utility theory: claims that people are rational and if they have all relevant information they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility.

Utility: refers to the outcomes that are desirable because they are in the person’s best interest (max monetary payoff)

problem 1: This theory is NOT true, because we are NOT RATIONAL. This is because money isn’t the only thing that matters to people. People find value in other things.

Problem 2: many decisions involving payoffs can’t be calculated.

Question 30

What are mental stimulations? Give an example.

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Answer 30

Mental stimulations: models that people create about what will happen with the following decisions.

Example: a pros & cons list.
we are not good at creating these mental stimulations.
They are sometimes incorrect because we can’t calculate chaos or put value on just anything.

Question 30

Give an example that shows that people are NOT rational .

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Answer 30

Focusing illusion: focus on just one aspect of a situation and ignore other aspects that may be important.
- Dating & Happiness: 2 questions
o A: how happy are you?
o B: How many dates did you have last month?
o If you ask question A , then B, correlation was 0.12
o If you ask question B, then A, correlation was 0.66
*tend to focus on the good things, rather than consider all of the other factors.

Question 31

Describe evidence that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) is important for decision-making.

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Answer 31

Important for reasoning, planning and making connections among different parts of a problem or story
- as reasoning problems become more complex, large areas of the PFC are activated.
- might cause people to switch strategies to complete a task.
If the pre-frontal cortex is damaged, it interferes with the ability to act in a flexible manner, which we need for problem-solving
- preservation: we can’t switch from one pattern of behavior to another.
- Patients with PFC damage perform much worse than intact control or controls with temporal lobe damages (with hard tasks)

Question 31

Discuss evidence suggesting how a question is framed can influence people’s decisions.

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Answer 31

Decisions depend on how choices are presented
Opt-in procedure:
- Active step to be organ donor (85% approve, 28% make decision -USA)
Opt-out procedure
- Organ donor unless request not to be (99% of people don’t opt out -FRANCE)

Ex of people not being being rational: People tend to use the outcome, to justify their decision
- Passing or failing exam, won’t decide if they want to go on a trip or not unless they know the score.
- Therefore knowing the outcome of their exam will determine their decision – this is NOT rational, but people do it anyway.
Framing Effect
- Risk-averse strategy: use the problem put in terms of gains and not think about what you lose. – people become risk averse.
o Risk-taking strategy - But if you put it in terms of losses and not gains – people become risk-takers

Question 32

describe how perceived responsibility influences decision-making (see omission bias).

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Answer 32

Sanfey & Coworkers (2003) example of us NOT being rational
- Ultimatum games
o Often rejected low offers because
o More activation of right anterior insula – so participants are more likely to reject the offer

Omission bias: in a risky situation, better to do nothing than to do something which might cause harm
Zikmund-Fisher (2006)
- Bad flu going around, 10% chance you’ll die
o Vaccine will prevent you from getting the flu – 5% chance the vaccine itself will kill you.
*if we are rational we should always accept the vaccine
*o The decision of accepting or rejecting the vaccine depends on how much responsibility we have or perceive
 When put in a role of higher authority, people are more rational **