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MCAT: PSYCH/SOC > Cognition, Consciousness & Language (Behavioral Sciences Chapter 4) > Flashcards

Cognition, Consciousness & Language (Behavioral Sciences Chapter 4) Flashcards

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1
Q

Input -> _____ -> Outputs

A

Processing in the Brain

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2
Q

What biological feature helps explain why our cognition is so much more complex than our biological / anthropological ancestors?

A

our frontal lobe is thiccccck

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3
Q

What is the Information Processing Model? Name it’s components.

A

this is a theory describing how the brain encodes, stores and retrieves information. It’s 4 Pillars are: thinking ; analysis of stimuli ; situational modification ; obstacle evaluation

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4
Q

What is situational modification for in the information processing model?

A

it allows our brain to adjust to new problems by taking newly absorbed information (in the thinking step) that was then analyzed (analysis of stimuli step) to fit that new information into what we already know. This occurs before obstacle evaluation (which determines the complexity of the object or thing our brain is processing)

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5
Q

Using previous decisions to solve present problems is what pillar of the information processing model?

A

situational modification

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6
Q

Organized patterns of behavior and thought, such as an infant learning that they can grasp nearby objects, is known as what?

A

Schema

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7
Q

Who Said This: We process information in an adaptation system, in which new information has to be placed within different schemata.

A

Piaget

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8
Q

___ is the process in which new information is easily placed within one’s existing schemata, a type of Piaget’s adaptation.

A

Assimilation

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9
Q

___ allowing existing schemata to be modified to fit new information into schema

A

Accomodation

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10
Q

Can one be in two stages at once of Piaget’s 4 stages of cognitive development?

A

no, they’re sequential: that means 1 stage prepares you for the next and you’re supposed to go through each of them in your life

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11
Q

Why are 4 year olds bored by peek-a-boo?

A

they have developed object permanence through representational thought, which allows them to remember who you are, and that you didn’t disappear because you went behind your hands

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12
Q

What are the two types of circular, repetitive reactions babies do? (Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage of cognitive development)

A

Primary: baby does this by accident, but keeps doing it because it’s fun or soothing (like sucking it’s thumb)
Secondary: baby gets a response from altering their external environment ; like throwing a toy to make their parents pick it up

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13
Q

What marks the end of Piaget’s Sensorimotor stage of cognitive development?

A

the establishment of Object Permanence

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14
Q

What are the three main features seen in children in the pre-operational stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development?

A

symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration

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15
Q

What is Symbolic Thinking, as developed by children in the pre-operational stage of Piaget’s cognitive development?

A

symbolic thinking is the creation of an imagination, like the messed up weird characters kids draw / playing make-believe

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16
Q

What is Egocentrism, as developed by children in the pre-operational stage of Piaget’s cognitive development?

A

the child only has the ability to see from their own perspective

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17
Q

What is Centration, as developed by children in the pre-operational stage of Piaget’s cognitive development?

A

a child will focus on only one aspect of a phenomenon at any given time ; this includes an inability to understand conservation (valuing parts over quantity, like two halves of a chicken nugget being more than one whole nugget to a child)

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18
Q

How old are children in the pre-operational stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development?

A

2-7 years old

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19
Q

According to Piaget, will a 12 month old baby have an imagination?

A

no

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20
Q

What marks the end of Piaget’s pre-operational stage of cognitive development (2-7 years old)?

A

the child will understand conservation and start understanding other people’s feelings, thoughts and perspectives

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21
Q

What is third in Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development?

A

Concrete Operational (7-11 years)

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22
Q

Explain the logic and reasoning of a child in the Concrete Operational Stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development.

A

children in this stage can apply logical thought to concrete problems and situations, but cannot apply logic to abstract ideas

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23
Q

What key development occurs when a child reaches the Formal Operational stage of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development? (Ages 11 and up, marks the start of aldolescence)

A

Abstract Thinking ; children can think logically about abstract ideas

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24
Q

Which of Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development marks the start of adolescence?

A

The Formal Operational Stage (starts at Age 11)

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25
Q

In what stage will children methodically try to figure out a problem (like when given an online pendulum to study it’s frequency of swinging, they held all variables constant when testing one to see if it affected the frequency)?

A

Formal Operational Stage (abstract thinking at this stage)

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26
Q

If children in Piaget’s Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development were given a problem to methodically approach, what would they do?

A

they would not methodically approach it (holding all variables but one constant to identify variables influencing the result, such as string length determining a pendulum’s frequency) ; instead: these children would change variables at random and may twist the data to fit their own pre-conceived ideas

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27
Q

What two major cognitive changes occur in late adulthood?

A

Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

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28
Q

Define Fluid Intelligence, what is it specialized in and when does it peak?

A

one’s problem-solving abilities; peaks in early adulthood

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29
Q

Define Crystallized Intelligence, what is it specialized in and when does it peak?

A

applying learned skills and knowledge ; peaks around middle adulthood

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30
Q

Karen has just peaked in her ability to solve puzzles and math problems, as long as they refer to “live, laugh, love”. What age is Karen, roughly?

A

early adulthood, as her Fluid Intelligence is peaking

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31
Q

True / False: Both fluid & crystallized intelligence decline with age

A

True

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32
Q

Alcohol use during pregnancy leads to ___ ____ _____.

A

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome

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33
Q

___ is a rapid fluctuation in cognitive function. It is reversible and is caused by medical, non psychological factors.

A

Delirium

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34
Q

Is delirium the same thing as dementia?

A

No, No, NOOOOOO

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35
Q

Can genetic abnormalities, such as antisocial personality disorder, or chromosomal conditions such as trisomy 21 (Down’s Syndrome) and Fragile X Syndrome affect one’s cognition?

A

yes

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36
Q

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development attempt to explain what, at various stages as we age?

A

how we think and solve problems through 4 stages: sensorimotor, pre-operational, concrete operational, and formal operational

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37
Q

Define Consciousness

A

one’s awareness of the world and how they exist within it

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38
Q

True / False: Different states of consciousness will be shown different on an EEG.

A

true

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39
Q

True / False: An EEG may be useful in understanding one’s sleep disorders.

A

True

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40
Q

What neural circuits maintain one’s state of alertness?

A

neural circuits in the Prefrontal cortex communicate with those in the reticular formation ; these interactions keep the prefrontal cortex awake and alert

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41
Q

Cortisol tends to be high or low during awareness?

A

higher

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42
Q

Alertness is expressed as ___ waves on EEG.

A

beta

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43
Q

Awake and relaxed state is expressed as ___ waves on EEG, despite being classified as “awake” in the sleep cycle.

A

alpha

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44
Q

Which EEG wave type is slower and more synchronized: alpha or beta?

A

alpha

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45
Q

Early sleep, specifically stage 1, is expressed as theta waves. What do theta waves look like on an EEG?

A

slower frequencies with higher voltages

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46
Q

What is stage 2 sleep characterized by on an EEG?

A

sleep spindles and K complexes

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47
Q

Stages __ & __ of the sleep cycle are collectively known as slow wave sleep, or SWS.

A

Stages 3 and 4

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48
Q

During stages 3 and 4, EEG waves will slow down until becoming ___ waves, the hallmark wave of these two sleep stages.

A

delta waves (low frequency, high voltage sleep waves)

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49
Q

As someone goes further into deep stage sleep, does it become harder or easier to wake them up?

A

harder

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50
Q

What distinguishes stage 1 and 2 of sleep?

A

the formation of spindles and K complexes in stage 2 but not stage 1

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51
Q

How do we remember the order of sleep waves?

A 
BATs sleep in the Day : 
    Beta: Awake & Alert
    Alpha: Awake & Resting 
    Theta: Sleep Stages 1 & 2
    Delta: Sleep Stages 3 & 4
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52
Q

Are sleep stages 1-4 part of REM or NREM (non rapid eye movement) sleep?

A

NREM

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53
Q

When sleep stages 1-4 are combined with REM sleep, how long is the individual sleep cycle created?

A

90 minutes

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54
Q

REM is a sleep stages that mimics ___, as it displays beta waves. During REM, the person’s muscles are paralyzed, but their heart rate and breathing patterns are similar to being awake.

A

wakefullness (being awake)

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55
Q

True / False: NREM is important for consolidating our memories for completing procedures and tasks.

A

Nope!! False!!! that’s REM

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56
Q

What’s a circadium rhythm?

A

a daily cycle, like an alarm clock that wakes us up and puts us to sleep (for humans it’s about 24 hours)

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57
Q

___ is pumped out of the adrenal cortex as light increases in the morning, making us wake up. It switches us over to beta waves.

A

Cortisol

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58
Q

Why should you know damn well what cortisol does?

A

You have way too much of it! That’s why you wake up at 6AM all the time cortisol is an evil hormone

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59
Q

The increase in ____ in our bloodstream is partially why we get sleepy at night. This hormone is released from the pineal gland as light decreases.

A

Melatonin

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60
Q

Melatonin deficiency in a human can lead to what?

A

Inability to fall asleep

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61
Q

While 75% of our dreaming occurs during REM, some of it in NREM.

A

Yeah

62
Q

Dreams experienced during __ sleep tend to be longer and more vivid than those in ___ sleep.

A

REM ; NREM

63
Q

Explain the Activation-Synthesis Theory of dreaming.

A

dreams are caused by random widespread neural activation ; activation is caused by memories, desires, met and unmet needs ; the brain’s cortex interprets this into a dream

64
Q

Explain the Problem-Solving Dream Theory.

A

we use dreams to solve everyday problems in new ways that wouldn’t be available while awake

65
Q

Explain the Cognitive Process Dream Theory.

A

wakefulness and dreaming use same mental systems in the brain; notice how in dreams we have quick shifts in content, which also occurs while we’re awake (when we have a stream of consciousness)

66
Q

EX: I’m thinking about a shark and then switch to thinking about organic chem. This kind of switching in a stream of consciousness can also occur in dreams. What dream theory does this support?

A

Cognitive Process Dream Theory

67
Q

Bob is a writer that can’t figure out how to end his play, until he has a dream about the perfect ending scene. What theory is supported by his dream?

A

The Problem-Solving Dream Theory

68
Q

___ occurs when we have difficulty falling and then staying asleep, and is the most common sleep disorder, and can occur from anxiety or medications, or a variety of other factors.

A

Insomnia (A Dyssomnia)

69
Q

___ occurs when a patient is unable to stay awake. This can involve feeling paralyzed while trying to wake up, or hallucinations while falling asleep. These patients lack voluntary control over when they fall asleep.

A

Narcolepsy (A Dyssomnia)

70
Q

___ is a dangerous condition in which patients do not breathe while sleeping. This can occur from a blockage in the pharynx, or in central ___, the brain fails to send signals to the diaphragm to breathe.

A

Sleep Apnea (A Dyssomnia)

71
Q

Insomnia, Narcolepsy, and Sleep Apnea are all known as ____.

A

Dyssomnias

72
Q

In contrast to dyssomnias, ___ are movements of behaviors patients have during sleep that are abnormal.

A

Parasomnias

73
Q

___ occurs mostly in children, and tend to occur during slow wave sleep. They are characterized by anxiety as well as thrashing and rapid breathing during sleep.

A

Night Terrors (A Parasomnia)

74
Q

___ occurs during slow wave sleep. These people can eat, sleep and talk. When they wake up they don’t remember anything.

A

Sleep Walking (A Parasomnia)

75
Q

___ ___ is marked by irritability, slowed reaction time, and poor performance due to missing one or more nights of sleep. It can also result from a crappy couple of night’s sleep.

A

Sleep Deprivation

76
Q

True / False: Intense sleep deprivation can cause Psychosis.

A

True

77
Q

An EEG of a person asleep after many hours of sleep deprivation would include what kinds of waves?

A

more alpha waves

78
Q

How do people rebound from a period of sleep deprivation?

A

big fat REM Rebound: quicker to start and longer lasting REM period

79
Q

Dyssomnias, Parasomnias, and Sleep Deprivation are all forms of what?

A

Sleep Disorders (or things that go wrong while we’re sleeping or trying to)

80
Q

___ is an altered state where a person appears to be in control of their actions but is in a highly suggestible state. They experience exercising the commands of another person as involuntary actions.

A

Hypnosis

81
Q

___ is a form of quieting the mind and another altered state, and induces a number of physiological changes including decreased heart rate and blood pressure. Appears with theta (stage 1 sleep) and slow alpha waves on an EEG. It has many stress relief benefits.

A

Meditation

82
Q

___ is characterized by spontaneous episodes of sleep onset.

A

Narcolepsy

83
Q

___ waves have a high frequency and occur when neurons are randomly firing.

A

Beta

84
Q

What is meant by “awake and resting” as when alpha waves are seen?

A

your eyes are closed and you’re chilling but awake

85
Q

Name the 4 categories of consciousness-altering drugs

A

stimulants ; hallucinogens ; opiates ; depressants

86
Q

____’s main role is to reduce nervous system activity. They commonly do this through the GABA receptor.

A

Depressants

87
Q

___ is the main inhibitory (depressant) neurotransmitter.

A

GABA

88
Q

How does GABA work to inhibit action potentials?

A

GABA lets Cl- into neurons, hyper polarizing them. this makes action potentials much more difficult to achieve

89
Q

Alcohol and barbiturates and benzodiazepines are some of the most commonly abused ____ (drug class).

A

Depressants

90
Q

Depressants work by either mimicking the effect of, or causing increased release of what neurotransmitter?

A

GABA

91
Q

Which neurotransmitter pathway do depressants have their primary effect on?

A

GABA

92
Q

Increasing what neurotransmitter’s activity causes alcohol’s minor euphoric effect?

A

Dopamine

93
Q

___ promote neurotransmitter activity in the synapse.

A

Stimulants

94
Q

_____ is a designer amphetamine better known as ecstasy. It is a stimulant

A

MDMA

95
Q

Amphetamines (like MDMA) and Cocaine are what kind of drugs?

A

Stimulants

96
Q

____ increase arousal through increasing neurotransmitter release, decreasing neurotransmitter reuptake, and increasing the frequency at which action potentials occur.

A

Stimulants

97
Q

Amphetamines increase the release of ___, ___, and ___. This causes an increase in heart rate and blood pressure, hyper vigilance, anxiety, and some paranoia.

A

Dopamine, Norepinephrine, and Serotonin

98
Q

How does cocaine work in terms of it’s effect on neurotransmitters?

A

it decreases re-uptake of dopamine in the pre-synaptic neuron, allowing it to be active for a longer period of time and causing a euphoric sensation

99
Q

MDMA (Extasy) is a designer, synthetic ____.

A

Amphetamine, Stimulant. It’s actually an amphetamine combined with a hallucinogen.

100
Q

MDMA is actually a hybrid of a hallucinogen and a stimulant. What effect does this have in patients?

A

patients have all the effects of a stimulant accompanied by a sense of well-being and connectedness

101
Q

___ are derived from the poppy plant, and include drug such as morphine and codeine. This makes them technically naturally occurring.

A

Opiates

102
Q

___ occur naturally and include morphine and codeine, while ___ are synthetic and include oxycodon, hydrocodone, and heroine.

A

Opiates ; Opioids

103
Q

Opioids work by binding to what receptor? What effects does this have on the patient’s emotions?

A

Opioid Receptors ; decreased pain and increased euphoria

104
Q

Heroin was created as a substitute for morphine, but once metabolized turns into what?

A

once metabolized, heroin rapidly turns into morphine

105
Q

Opioid addiction is often treated with ___, a long-acting opioid.

A

Methadone

106
Q

What are opioids and opiates used for therapeutically?

A

Pain Relief

107
Q

_____ distort reality versus fantasy, enhance sensory experiences, and act through a complex mechanism that is still not understood today.

A

Hallucinogens

108
Q

LDS (lysergic acid diethyl amide), peyote, mescaline and ketamine all fall under what class of recreational drugs?

A

Hallucinogens

109
Q

While hallucinogens act through a variety of neurotransmitters, which one do they significantly affect?

A

Serotonin!

110
Q

Physiologically, what will LSD cause? Hint: It’s a hallucinogen.

A

increases in heart rate, blood pressure, pupil dilation, and body temperature

111
Q

While not in one of the 4 major drug categories, this bad boy acts as a stimulant, depressant, and a hallucinogen ALL IN ONE.

A

Marijuana

112
Q

What is the active ingredient in marijuana, and what receptor does it target? What neurotransmitters does this affect?

A

Active Ingredient: THC
Targeted Receptors: Glycine Receptors ; Cannabinoid Receptors ; Opioid Receptors
Neurotransmitters: THC increase GABA (causes neural inhibition) and Dopamine (increases pleasure)

113
Q

____ _____ is linked to the mesolimbic reward pathway in the brain. This pathway is involved in motivational and emotional responses as it is a reward pathway evolved to drive beneficial behaviors. It works through positive reinforcement (giving something good)

A

Drug Addiction

114
Q

Which of the following will increase GABA activity in the brain? : Alcohol, Barbiturates, Opiates

A

Alcohol & Barbiturates will increase GABA

115
Q

What is Phonology?

A

a component of language ; the actual sound of a language (like letters of the alphabet) ; individual speech sounds are called phonemes and compose the phonology of an entire language

116
Q

How many phonemes are in the English language?

A

about 40, but other languages have many more

117
Q

What are Pragmatics?

A

a component of language ; changes in one’s wording, word usage, and inflection based on context

118
Q

Addressing a stranger as sir, but calling your brother William, or bro is an example of what component of language?

A

Pragmatics: context-based language

119
Q

What is Syntax?

A

how we construct sentences to give them different meanings based on how the words are ordered

120
Q

“Nathan only has 3 m&m’s” has a different meaning than “Only Nathan has 3 m&m’s”. What component of language is this?

A

Syntax (constructing sentences using the order of words to make different meanings)

121
Q

What is Morphology?

A

a component of language ; the structure of words ; morphemes are the building blocks of words

122
Q

What are Morphemes?

A

a part of morphology, morphemes are the building blocks of words

123
Q

How many morphemes does the word “redesigned” have, and what does each mean?

A

3 Morphemes!:

1: re = being done again
2: design = a verb root
3: ed = the action was done in the past

124
Q

What are Semantics?

A

a component of language ; associating a meaning with a word, like how “mothers” is associated with “women” and “fathers” is associated with “men”

125
Q

Okay name the 5 Components of Language!

A

Phonology, Pragmatics, Syntax, Morphology, Semantics

126
Q

What is the precursor to language, developed at 9-12 months old?

A

Babbling (sounds that have no identifiable meaning)

127
Q

at __-__ months old a child learns approximately 1 word per month, and starts to put inflections in those words as well.

A

12-18 months

128
Q

At __-__ months old, a child undergoes a Language Explosion, where they start learning dozens of words and start combining those words into sentences / statements!

A

18-20 months

129
Q

At age __-__ years, a child will learn sentences, usually of 3 words or more. These sentences are now more coherent, such as “I want that apple” rather than “want apple?” or simply “Apple?”

A

2-3 years old

130
Q

At ___ years old, a child has mastered the rules of a language.

A

5 years old

131
Q

At what age could a child be expected to put inflection on words to attach extra meaning?

A

12-18 months

132
Q

Theories of how we acquire language range from biological to ___.

A

Nurture / Social Theories

133
Q

The ____ theory of Language Acquisition states that children ‘learn’ languages quickly because they have an innate sense of grammar and language, and will learn it’s applications and variations. In short, the tools for learning language are biologically ingrained in us.

A

Nativist Theory (Biological / Nature in the Nature versus. Nurture)

134
Q

The ___ theory of Language Acquisition states that children learn languages through operant conditioning. Operant conditioning is in the context that a child can learn all languages, but will only pick up those that their parents speak, and their environment reinforces.

A

Learning Theory (Social / Nurture in the Nature versus. Nurture)

135
Q

The _____ _____ theory false in the middle of the nature versus. nurture spectrum of language acquisition. It states that The brain groups sounds and meanings together (nature), but the child interaction with it’s environment causes certain neural circuits to be reinforced while others die (nurture).

A

Social Interactionist Theory of Language Acquisition

136
Q

Explain the Whorfian / Language Relativity Hypothesis. (Note: while you need to know this, it’s been pretty controversial and is not as true to the degree that Whorf said)

A

language affects how we think and see the world (using more specific words for light and dark blue, as is done in russian, makes Russians better at identifying color differences than us by this theory)

137
Q

The left side of the brain contains two areas responsible for speech production and language comprehension. Name them

A

Broca’s Area ( controls speech production) ; remember, Broca’s allows for babbling (the precursor of speech)
Wernicke’s Area (controls language comprehension)

138
Q

True / False : Broca’s and Wernicke’s Areas are connected by a bundle of axons.

A

True!

139
Q

What is Aphasia?

A

impairment of language production and or comprehension ; there are 3 types for the MCAT

140
Q

What is Broca’s / Expressive Aphasia?

A

the patient has an impaired ability to express spoken language, but can understand language

141
Q

What is Wernicke’s / Receptive Aphasia?

A

the patient has an impaired ability to comprehend language, but can speak words, resulting in nonsensical speech

142
Q

What is Conduction Aphasia?

A

the bundle of axons connecting Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas is damaged ; the patient can understand language and speak it, but cannot repeat something that has already been said

143
Q

What is the base rate fallacy? When does it occur?

A

this fallacy occurs when prototypical or stereotypical factors are used in one’s analysis over actual data (one’s perception of something is used over actual data)

144
Q

What is Deductive Reasoning?

A

drawing conclusions that you know are true from integrating other pieces of true information (facts to more facts)

145
Q

What is the Representativeness Heuristic?

A

categorization / classification based on how well an individual fits into a category

146
Q

What is Confirmation Bias?

A

when an individual only seeks information that reinforces their opinions / the anti-vaxxer phenomenon

147
Q

What is Inductive Reasoning?

A

looking for a pattern or a trend and then generalizing and predicting a conclusion from that trend; extrapolating data for a conclusion that might be true (or might not be)

148
Q

Are fluid and crystallized intelligence part of Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences?

A

no

149
Q

Name the Gardner’s 7 intelligences, from Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences.

A

linguistic ; logical-mathematical ; musical ; visual-spacial ; bodily-kinesthetic ; interpersonal ; intrapersonal intelligences

150
Q

What do Neurocognitive Theorists say about dreaming?

A

they want to correlate one’s subjective dream experience with the physiological experience of dreaming and thereby unify the biological and cognitive perspectives on dreaming

151
Q

A student steals cheetos, and during interrogation is found to have bloodshot eyes, won’t stop giggling, and keeps asking for water. What was he smoking?

A 
marijuana symptoms match best: 
Bloodshot / red  Eyes 
Hunger (he took cheetos) 
Giggling = Euphoria 
Dry Mouth

MCAT: PSYCH/SOC (4 decks)

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