Cognition & Consciousness Flashcards
Cognition
How our brains react to the information received from the outside world
Which lobe is disproportionately large in humans
Frontal
4 pillars of the Information Processing Model
- Thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli
- Stimuli must be analyzed by the brain to be used in decision making
- Decisions made in one situation can be applied to others (situational modification)
- Problem solving is dependent not only on the person’s cognitive level but also the complexity and the context
Cognitive development
Development of one’s ability to solve problems
Piaget’s stages of cognitive development
- Sensorimotor
- Preoperational
- Concrete operational
- Formal operational
Piaget: infants learn through ____ interactions with the environment?
Instinctual
Schema
Organized patterns of behaviour/concepts/sequences of events
-ex: what is a dog? what happens when someone calls you name? What do you do at a restaurant ?
Adaptation
The process of adding new information to different schemata’s
-either occurs by assimilation or accomodation
Assimilation
Process of classifying new information into an existing schemata
Accomodation
Process in which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information
Sensorimotor stage: time & features
From birth until about 2 years
Child learns to manipulate environment to get needs
2 different types of circular reactions (primary and secondary)
*Key milestone that ends this period: developing object permanence = objects continue to exist when they are out of sight
Primary circular reactions
Repetition of body movements that originally occurred by chance
-ex: thumb sucking
Secondary circular reactions
Repeated actions (manipulation) that is focused on the environment, not the body
- tend to be repeated if a child gets a response
- ex: throwing toys
Representational though
Marked by the development of object permanence
-child begins to create mental representations of external objects and events
Preoperational stage
From ~ age 2-7
Characterized by:
- symbolic thinking= play make believe/imagination
- egocentrism= inability to think how others may feel
- centration= focus only on one aspect of a phenomenon
- unable to understand conservation (has to do with centration)
- ex: cant tell that a piece of cake cut in half is still the same size
Concrete Operational stage
From ~age 7-11
Children can understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others
Can engage in logical thought about concrete objects and ideas
*can’t think abstractly yet
Formal Operational stage
From ~11+
Able to think logically and abstractly about ideas
Reason with abstract concepts and problem solve
*Piaget’s pendulum experiment - only those in FOS could manipulate the equations to see which variables affected length
Lev Vygotsky - ideas of cognitive development
Thought that the force driving cognitive development in kids was their own internalization of their culture
Fluid intelligence
Problem solving skills
- peaks in early adulthood
- declines with age
Crystallized intelligence
Related to the use of learned skills and knowledge
- peaks in middle adulthood
- declines with age
Activities of daily living
Eating, bathing, toileting, dressing, ambulation
-the longer a person is able to retain function in these areas the less likely they are to experience intellectual decline
Dementia
Begins with impaired memory but progresses to impaired judgement and confusion
-personality changes can also occur
2 common causes of dementia
- Alzheimer’s
2. Vascular (multi-infact) dementia caused by high BP and repeated micro clots in the brain
Delirium
Rapid fluctuation in cognitive functional that is reversible and caused by medical causes
- pH or electrolyte imbalances
- malnutrition
- pain
- alcohol withdrawal
- -etc.
Mental set
Tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
Functional fixedness
Inability to consider how an object can be used in a non-traditional manner
Trial and error
Less sophisticated means of problem solving
-try various ways until one works
Algorithms
Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem
Deductive reasoning
Top down reasoning
-starts with a general set of rules and draws conclusions from the information given
Inductive reasoning
Bottom up reasoning
- create a theory via generalizations
- starts with a specific instance and then draws a conclusion from it
Heuristics
Simplified principles used to make decisions
-“rules of thumb”
Availability Heuristic
Used to try and decide how likely something is
-make decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined
Representativeness Heuristic
Used to categorize items on the basis of wether they fit the representative image of a category
Base rate fallacy
When you use prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
Disconfirmation principle
Evidence obtained from testing proves the solution doesn’t work => therefore solution should be discarded
Confirmation bias
Tendency to focus on information that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting opposing information
Overconfidence
Tendency to erroneously interpret one’s own knowledge and beliefs as infallible
-confirmation bias supports this
Belief perseverance
Inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
Intuition
Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by evidence
*recognition primed decision model = brain uses past experience to create patterns and apply them to situations without awareness
Emotion
Subjective experience that a person has in a given situation
- often influences how they think and make choices
- also include the emotion the person expects to feel from a particular decision
Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences - 7 types
- Linguistic
- Logical-mathematical
- Musical
- Visual-spatial
- Bodily-Kinesthetic
- Interpersonal
- Intrapersonal
Intelligence quotient (IQ)
Standardized way of measuring intelligence
-largely pioneered by Alfred Binet
Stanford-Binet IQ test
From Binet’s work and a professor at Harvard
IQ = (Mental age / chronological age) x 100
Consciousness
Level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence in the world
Alertness
State of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think
- experience physiological arousal
- cortisol levels tend to be higher
Maintained by neurological circuits in the prefrontal cortex
-communicate with the reticular formation in the brainstem keeps the cortex awake and alert
Electroencephalography (EEG)
Records the average of the electrical patterns within different portions of the brain
Beta waves
High frequency and occur when a person is alert or concentrating on a mental task
-neurons are randomly firing
Alpha waves
Awake but relaxed with closed eyes
-slower and more synchronized than beta waves
Stage 1
First stage of sleep
-appearance of theta waves : irregular waveforms, slower frequencies and higher voltages
Stage 2
Deeper stage of sleep
Theta waves along with:
- sleep spindles - high frequency
- K complexes - look like an action potential
Stages 3&4
Slow wave sleep stages
- much slower activity picked up on the EEG
- very hard to wake someone up during this stage
- (declarative) memory consolidation, cognitive recovery
Delta waves - low frequency and high voltage
Non-rapid eye movement sleep (NREM)
Stages 1-4
Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep
Happens between cycles of NREM sleep
- arousal levels reach that of alertness but the muscles are paralyzed
- paradoxical sleep => HR, EEG, and breathing mimic awake
Where dreaming is most likely to occur
-also involved in (procedural) memory consolidation
Sleep cycle
Single complete progression through the sleep stages
- 50 min in children
- 90 min in adults
Early in the night = mainly SWS
Late in the night = mainly REM
Circadian Rhythms
Daily cycle of sleeping and waking that is internally regulated
-~24 hours and is influenced by outside factors like light
Melatonin
Serotonin derived hormone from the pineal gland
- released due to decreased light
- retina is in direct contact with the hypothalamus which controls the pineal gland
Cortisol
Steroid hormone of the adrenal cortex
- levels rise in the morning due to increased corticotropin releasing factor CRF from the hypothalamus (stimulated by increased light)
- CRF causes adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) to be released from the anterior pituitary
- ACTH stimulates cortisol release
Activation-synthesis theory
Dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry
-can mimic sensory info or memories
Problem solving dream theory
Dreams are ways to try an solve problems while sleeping
Cognitive process dream theory
Dreams are the sleeping counterpart of stream of consciousness
Neurocognitive models of dreaming
Seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
Dyssomnias - 3 examples
Disorders that make it difficult to fall, stay, or avoid asleep
- insomnia
- sleep apnea
- narcolepsy
Narcolepsy - symptoms
lack of voluntary control over sleep
- cataplexy = loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep
- sleep paralysis
- hypanagogic hallucinations - while going to sleep
- hynopompic hallucinations - while waking up
Sleep apnea
Inability to breathe during sleep
- obstructive = physical blockage of pharynx/trachea
- central = brain fails to send signals to diaphragm
Night terrors
Periods of intense anxiety during slow wave sleep
- sympathetic NS overdrive
- most common in kids
Sleepwalking/Somnabulism
Usually occurs during SWS
-can do a bunch of activities and wake up in the morning without knowing
Sleep deprivation
Results in irritability, mood disturbances, slowed reaction time
-extreme cases can cause psychosis
REM rebound
When people are permitted to sleep normally after sleep deprivation, they have earlier and longer REM sleep
Hypnosis
State in which a person appears to be in control of their normal functions but is in a highly suggestible state
Hypnotic induction
Hypnotist seeks to relax the subject and increase their level of concentration
Meditation
Involves the quieting of the mind
-slow alpha waves and theta waves
Parasomnias
Abnormal movements or behaviours during sleep
-night terrors and sleepwalking
Depressants
Reduce nervous system activity
- reduced anxiety and a sense of relaxation
- ex: alcohol, barbiturates and benzos
Alcohol
Increases activity of GABA receptor (chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization)
-results in generalized brain inhibition
Increases dopamine levels = mild euphoria
Higher levels = decreased logical reasoning and motor skills and increased fatigue
Alcohol myopia
Inability to recognize consequences of actions
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome
Brain disorder cause by long term alchohol use
- deficiency in thiamine
- severe memory impairment
- changes in mental status
- loss of motor skills
Barbiturates
Historically used as anxiety reducing and sleep medications
-eg. phenobarbital
Benzodiazapenes
Replaced barbiturates as anxiety/sleep medications because they were less prone to OD
- eg. diazapam, clonazepam…
- increase GABA activity = relaxation
Stimulants
Increase in arousal of the nervous system
-increases frequency of action potentials
Ex: amphetamines, cocaine, ecstasy
Amphetamines
Increased arousal by increasing dopamine, norepinepherine, and serotonin release and decreasing their reuptake
Reduction in appetite
Increased heart rate and BP
Euphoria, on edge, anxiety paranoia, grandeur
Cocaine
Decreases reuptake of dopamine, norepinepherine, and serotonin but through a different mechanism than amphetamines
Has anaesthetic and vasoconstrictive properties
Crack
Form of cocaine that can be smoked
Ecstasy
Hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine
Euphoria, increased alertness, wellbeing and connectiveness are all feelings associated with it
Causes blurry vision, sweating, nausea, increased BP..
Opiates and Opiods
All derived from the poppy plant (opium)
opiates = naturally occurring like morphine and codeine
opioids = semisynthetic like oxy, hydrocodone and heroin
Bind to opioid receptors in the PNS and CNS
- decreased reaction to pain
- increased euphoria
*OD = death by respiratory suppression
Heroin
Diacetylmorphine - originally made as a morphine substitution
-body ends up metabolizing heroin to morphine
Methadone
Longer acting opiod that is used to treat addiction as it has a lower risk of overdose
Hallucinogens
Complex interaction between neurotransmitters -especially serotonin - that cause distortion of reality and fantasy
Increased heart rate & blood pressure, dilation of pupils, sweating, increased body temperature
Marijuana
Active ingredient is Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
- acts at cannabinoid receptors, glycine receptors, opioid receptors
- increases GABA activity
Falls into the category of depressant, stimulant, and hallucinogen
Mesolimbic reward pathway
One of 4 dopaminergenic pathways in the brain and is linked to drug addiction (as well as gambling and love)
Includes:
- nucleus accumbens (NAc)
- ventral tegmental area (VTA)
- medial forebrain bundle (MFB - connects NAc and VTA)
Normally involved in motivation and emotional response
Attention
Concentrating on one aspect of the sensory environment (or sensorium)
Selective attention
Focussing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli
Cocktail party phenomenon
Even when you are engaged in an activity and concentrated, you are still able to perceive your name being mentioned
-will shift attention to other things if they are particularity important
Divided attention
Ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
- usually for familiar routines
- done with automatic processing
Language - 5 basic components
- Phonology
- Morphology
- Semantics
- Syntax
- Pragmatics
Phonology
Actual sound of language
Phonemes
Seech sounds
-about 40 in English
Categorical perception
Being able to tell when subtle sound differences are changing the meaning of a word or not
Being able to understand that the pronunciation of a word changes between people
Morphology
Structure of words
Morphemes
Building blocks of words
-each connotes a particular meaning
Semantics
Association of meaning with a word
Syntax
How words are put together to form sentences
Pragmatics
Dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
Prosody
The rhythm, cadence, inflection of our voices
-affects pragmatics
Language development: 9-12 months
Babblin = Important precursor to language
-highest frequency 9-12 months (for hearing children)
Language development: 12-18 months
Children learn about 1 new word per month `
Language development: 18-20 months
Explosion of language - learns dozens of words
-gestures, inflection, and context are important for caregivers to be able to identify the meaning
Combining words - gesturing becomes less important because sentence assembly begins
Language development: 2-3 years
Longer sentences and exponential vocabulary growth
-grammatical errors increase as kids learn complex grammar rules
*errors of growth: applies a grammatical rule (morpheme for example) where it does not work
Language development: 5 years
Children have largely mastered language by this age
Nativist (biological) theory
Credited to linguist Noam Chomsky
Advocates for the innate capacity for language
-language acquisition device (LAD) which is a theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to precess and absorb language rules
Transformational grammar - changes in word order that retain the same meaning
Critical period
Nativist theory - critical period between age 2 and puberty
Sensitive period
Time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability
-for language this is before the onset of puberty
Learning (behaviourist) theory
Credited to B.F. Skinner
Explains language acquisition by operant conditioning
Babies up to 6 mo. can distinguish between phonemes of different languages
- after 6 mo. they prefer those phonemes in the language spoken by their parents
- occurs by reinforcement: repetition of sounds the baby makes that are most like the parents language (mama)
Accounts for the development of words by not for the explosion of vocabulary
Social Interactionist Theory
Focuses on the interplay of biological and social processes
Language acquisition is driven by the child’s desire to communicate with others
Brain development also plays an important role
- sound and meaning grouped together
- neural circuits stimulated by social interactions
Linguistic relativity hypothesis
aka the Whorfian hypothesis
- our perception of reality is determined by the content of our language
- language affects the way we think
More specific vocabulary and expansive framework allow for more sophisticated processing
Broca’s area
Located in the inner inferior frontal gyrus of the dominant hemisphere (usually left)
-controls the motor function of speech (connects with motor cortex)
Wernicke’s area
Located in the superior temporal gyrus of the temporal gyrus
-responsible for language comprehension
Arcuate fasciculus
Buncle of axons that connects Broca’s and Wernike’s areas
-allows for proper association between language comprehension and speech production
Aphasia
Deficit of language production or comprehension
- Broca’s : expressive aphasia, reduced ability to produce speech
- Wernicke’s: receptive aphasia, motor production and fluency of speech is disrupted (fully understand and to them their speech production is working)`
Conductions aphasia
Occurs due to damage to the arcuate fasciculus
- very rare
- comprehension and production are intact but patients are unable to repeat something that has been said to them
