Cognition and emotion

Question 1

what is an emotion?

Answer 1

‘A strong feeling deriving from one’s circumstances, mood/r’ships with others; instinctive/intuitive feeling as distinguished from reasoning/knowledge’

Question 2

effects of emotion on cognition

Answer 2

Emotional stimuli elicit automatic responses and ‘grab’ attention

Critical for survival/reproductive success so prioritized

‘Preparedness’: evolved to fear ‘phobic’ stimuli in natural world (snakes, spiders), but not modern dangers (cars)

Question 3

unconscious emotions can influence behaviour (Winkielman et al., 2005)

Answer 3

Revealed strong effects of subliminally presented (unconscious) emotional faces on behaviour (consumption, willingness to pay and wanting for more drink), w/ mo effects on subjective mood/ratings of liking of drink

Affective priming effect only present in thirsty Ps (i.e. dependent of Ps being in relevant motivational state)

Not been replicated

Question 4

unconscious priming of behaviour

Answer 4

John Bargh et al. demo’d lost of fascinating effects of unconscious primes on behaviour and decision-making

Question 5

cognitive bias towards emotional stimuli

Answer 5

1. Classic tests from cog psyche have been widely used to demo influence of emotional stimuli on attention, memory and decision-making
   - E.g. Stroop test
2. Tests freq used in clinical psych research to asses role of cog biases in development and maintenance of disorders
3. Some now being adapted to treatments to modify cog biases

Question 6

what is attention?

Answer 6

Process by which specific stimuli within external and internal env selected for further processing

Automatic v controlled - noise

May depend on what scheme active/what mood someone is in - same stimulus processed differently

Question 7

what paradigms are there to asses attentional bias?

Answer 7

(Selective allocation of attention to disorder-related stimuli over neutral stimuli)

Detection tasks

Visual search task (E.g. Gilboa-Schectman et al., 1999)

Question 8

detection tasks

Answer 8

If an indv prone to attending more to particular type stimulus, he/she should detect it faster if located amongst distractors

Question 9

visual search task

Answer 9

P presented with array of stimuli and must detect target stimulus within array as quickly as pos

Selective attention indexed by extent to which stimuli surrounding target stimulus slow down speed with which its detected

Detect negative fats more than pos

Question 10

the emotional Stroop task

Answer 10

Instruction is: ‘read out loud the colour in which the words printed and ignore the content of the word’

Compare TR when word content neutral/related to disorder

Difficulties in interpreting Stroop - usually taken to reflect ‘attentional bias’, but:

1. Disorder-relevant words may induce internal attention (trigger rumination etc.)
2. May induce emotional reaction that slows response
3. Cognitive avoidance

Avoidance can interfere with one’s ability to do the task effectively

Studies suggest FAST (current trial) and SLOW (previous trial) interference effects
• Fast effect usually interpreted as reflecting fast and automatic allocation of attention to stimuli of high relevance/arousal whereas the slow effect might result from a general slowdown after the processing of neg stimuli - this general slowdown might indicate a warning system that screens the end in the presence of possibly threatening info (McKenna and Sharma, 2004)

What issues are there with using blocked presentation of words as we did?

How could these be avoided?

Question 11

the dot probe task

Answer 11

Measures of selective attention indexed by a shorter latency to respond - better measure, less ambiguous

2 cues presented simultaneously on computer screen and response time indicates preferential processing of one cue relative to the other cue

Task is to press the response button as fast as possible when s/he detects a dot on the computer screen

Degree of SA to emotional cues = RT probe to location-Emotional - RT probe to location-Neutral Across the whole task, the spatial location of the emotional cue (upper, lower) and the spatial location of the dot-probe (upper, lower) balanced

Question 12

the attention probe task

Answer 12

But could involve either engagement/disengagement bias

Rationale.- speed of responding to probes will be dependent on the spatial allocation of attention

Ps will be faster to respond to probes appearing in already attended region

If Ps faster to respond to probes appearing in location of emotional stimuli, relative to probes presented in location of neutral stimuli, this indicates biased attentional processing

The dot-probe paradigm is generally considered to provide a clear and unambiguous measure of SA

Faster responding to probes in the location of emotional stimuli could result from either enhanced attentional engagement (capture) with such stimuli/greater difficulty disengaging attention from them once it has been allocated

Index of attentional bias will reflect the combined influence of any biases in attentional engagement and disengagement

Researchers wishing to discriminate between 2 types of attentional bias must use alternative paradigms

Question 13

limitation of the attention probe task

Answer 13

One limitation of the original version is that it cannot distinguish between engagement and disengagement biases

Question 14

modified APT (Grafton et al., 2012)

Answer 14

Can distinguish between engagement and disengagement biases

Cue stimulus presented before and after pairs target stimuli

Fixes attention in one particular location prior to presenting stimulus pairs

Cue matching – Ps have to attend to cue in order to be able to respond accurately

First probe fixes attention in particular location

Can specifically investigate whether Ps faster to move attention towards location of emotional stimulus/slower to move attention away from this location

Compared RTs for probes presented in emotional as opposed to neutral location

Control for general diffs in shifting speed, compare with same index for pos

Question 15

attentional bias

Answer 15

Systematic tendency to attend to particular type stimulus over others (e.g. neg/drug-related)

Suggested to be underlying process involved in range disorders

Question 16

attentional bias with anxiety disorders

Answer 16

Reliable evidence of bias for threatening info – both for subliminal and supraliminal (conscious) stimuli

Eye-tracking suggests increased vigilance for threat and slower disengagement (Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012)

Question 17

attentional bias with depression

Answer 17

Meta-analysis (Peckham et al., 2010) suggests bias and greater ‘lingering’ of attention on sad stimuli

Eye-tracking shows maintenance of gaze on sad stimuli and less on pos stimuli (Armstrong and Olatunji, 2012)

Mixed evidence for AB in depression

Discrepant findings may be explained by exp conditions under which bias found

Studies generally more successful when using depression relevant stimuli, rather than threat stimuli

When stimuli presented for longer durations – some researchers interp as evidence that attentional biases in depression operate at later stages of processing – depression might be particularly related to difficulty disengaging attention for neg stimuli

Eye-tracking studies supported interp – maintained gaze, but no orienting bias

Question 18

what happens in the brain when looking at emotional stimuli?

Answer 18

Emotional stimuli cause early neuronal responses (at 100-120ms) prior to identification (170ms) prefrontal

Emotional stimuli cause increased functional connectivity (synchronized activity) between amygdala and visual cortex amygdala (amygdala lesions abolish bias for emotional words)

Question 19

Eimer and Holmes (2002)

Answer 19

Using event-related brain potentials (ERPs), we investigated the time course of facial expression processing in human subjects watching photographs of fearful and neutral faces.

Upright fearful faces elicited a frontocentral positivity within 120 ms after stimulus presentation, which was followed by a broadly distributed sustained positivity beyond 250 ms post-stimulus.
– Emotional expression effects were delayed and attenuated when faces were inverted.

In contrast, the face-specific N170 component was completely unaffected by facial expression.

We conclude that emotional expression analysis (~120 ms) and the structural encoding of faces (~170 ms) are parallel processes.

Early emotional ERP modulations may reflect the rapid activation of prefrontal areas involved in the analysis of facial expression.

(i.e. at approx. 170 ms the well-known N170 component specifically related to face-processing arises. This is an early face specific ERP component (N170) that has been linked to the pre-categorical structural encoding of faces).

Question 20

emotion modulation

Answer 20

Emotional stimuli can bias comp for processing resources

Emotion, like attention increase visual cortex responses

Emotional modulation.
• The amygdala receives highly processed visual input from inferior temporal areas TEO and TE.
• At the same time, the amygdala projects to several levels of visual processing, including as early as V1, which allows it to influence visual processing according to the valence of the stimulus.
• Note that the amygdala is also interconnected with, among other regions, the orbitofrontal cortex, another brain structure important for the processing of ‘stimulus significance.’
• Brain regions: green=occipitotemporal visual processing areas; orange/yellow=posterior superior temporal sulcus; red/pink=amygdala (note that the amygdala is not visible from a lateral view of the brain; instead it is situated subcortically near the brain’s medial surface); blue=orbitofrontal cortex (note that important orbitofrontal regions are situated along the midline, and hence are not visible from a lateral view of the brain).

Question 21

key mechanisms - memory

Answer 21

3 stages processing: encoding, storage and retrieval

Each stage may be relevant to development of psychopathology, i.e., selective encoding/retrieval

Number of factors influence what is encoded and retrieved, e.g. stimulus salience, mood, env, what is personally imp

Question 22

the weapon focus effect

Answer 22

Demo’s attention and memory interact

Threatening stimuli tend to capture and hold people’s attention, especially when the person is in an aroused/threatened state.

Their scope of attention narrows to focus on the weapon so that they cannot take in other information such as who the perpetrator is – their memory for this is therefore impaired (i.e. this attentional narrowing prevents encoding of other information).

Note this effect is seen for highly arousing emotions (desire, fear, disgust) which evoke the ‘urge to act’ but for low-arousal emotions (e.g. amusement or sadness) the scope of attention tends to be broadened.

The weapon focus effect is similar to the well-known phenomena of “flashbulb memories”

A flashbulb memory is a highly detailed, exceptionally vivid ‘snapshot’ of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising and consequential (or emotionally arousing) news was heard, e.g. the assassination of JFK or the 9/11 terrorist attacks.

Question 23

enhanced memory for positive and negative (v neutral) scenes associated with amygdala activity during encoding

Answer 23

Amygdala damage reverses memory bias for emotional > neutral

Retrieval of autobiographical memories?

9/11 v summer

2001: amygdala response seen in those close to WTC

Question 24

Hamman et al. (1999)

Answer 24

In this study, participants viewed positive, negative and neutral scenes whilst having a PET scan to measure regional cerebral blood flow.

Recognition memory for the scenes was tested 4 weeks later.

Participants showed enhanced memory for the emotional scenes and the degree of enhancement was positively correlated with amygdala blood flow during encoding of the scenes.

In the second study, three years after 9/11, participants recalled salient autobiographical memories from the Summer or September of 2011.

Those who were close to the WTC showed increased amygdala responses during recall of 9/11 events but not during recall of control (summer) events.

Question 25

can fear memories be erased?

Answer 25

Sometimes be helpful to alter disturbing memories (e.g. PTSD)

Research suggests memories can be modified by clocking reconsolidation, which requires protein synthesis in amygdala – change it to something less traumatic

Question 26

important form of elective memory

Answer 26

Mood-congruent memory = selective encoding/retrieval that occurs while indvs in mood state consistent with affective value of material
• An example of mood-congruent memory would be the finding that during a sad mood (e.g., induced due to conflict with one’s partner) it is easier to recall sad information (e.g., the death of a loved one 6 years ago, friends who have moved away etc.)

Hypothesised to be factor in maintenance of depression – as more depressed, recall more neg events, failures and losses

Question 27

mood-congruent memory

Answer 27

Memories can be triggered by places, events or one’s own mood and can serve to maintain a mood state.

People with depression may recall more negative memories but also show over-general memory – their autobiographical memories are not as detailed and specific.

This over-general memory may protect individuals from re-experiencing too many strong emotional responses associated with specific negative memories.

A recent study suggested that over-general autobiographical memory to negative prompts is a risk factor for depression in 10-18 year olds

Question 28

easier access/activation of associated sad representations in a ‘schema’/semantic network

Answer 28

Mood-state-dependent memory – better free recall when in same mood state at encoding and retrieval

Though congruity – content of thoughts/judgements congruent with mood state

Schema is an “organised packet of information about the world, events, or people stored in long-term memory.”

The emotional state excites the relevant emotion node in memory and through spreading excitation activates associated memories in the associative network.

Findings to support mood-state-dependent memory include Kenealy (1997) who showed that participants were able to free-recall a map route better when they were put in the same mood (triggered by playing the same happy or sad music) at learning and test.

Note, mood-state-dependent retrieval effects are stronger in free recall than recognition memory tests.

This is because the items (e.g. a word) themselves act as cues to retrieval in a recognition task but no cues are provided in a free-recall test so people use their emotional state as a retrieval cue.

To summarise the effects of emotion on memory: 1) people tend to recall emotional material better than neutral material (because it grabs attention and is associated with physiological arousal which enhances encoding); 2) specific emotions help to retrieve mood-congruent material; 3) emotional states can act as contextual cues for memories.

Question 29

antidepressant effects on memory

Answer 29

After 7 days of antidepressant (SSRI/SNRI) medication, controls showed decreased recognition of neg emotional expressions

Also showed faster reaction times to classify pos v neg words, and greater immediate free recall of pos words

Antidepressants increase pos bias in attention and memory in healthy controls

Question 30

strengths of cognitive biases in anxiety and depression

Answer 30

Anx has function of anticipating future threat

Depression has function of replacing failed goals with new ones

Question 31

cognitive bias modification

Answer 31

People now using cog bias tasks as treatments to normalise abnormal cog bias

Attentional bias modification
• Patients with anx and depression trained to attend away from neg stimuli
• Can lead to reduction in symptoms

The effects of attentional bias modification (ABM) on residual symptoms of depression measured using the BDI (A, B) and the HRSD (C, D) and on symptoms of anxiety measured using the trait-STAI (E, F).

Symptoms, which are displayed as a change from baseline of the mean scores, were measured at three time points; before bias modification, after bias modification, and after 1-month follow-up.

The symptoms of both depression and anxiety were significantly altered by face- but not word-based ABM.

The effect of ABM occurred during follow-up with no difference in groups seen during the bias modification period.

Solid line, positive ABM; dashed line, placebo ABM.

Error bars represent SEM. *p.05 for post hoc test of interaction.

Active ABM trained attentional bias towards the relatively positive stimulus in each pair (i.e. probe always behind the positive stimulus).

Placebo training had the probe location occurring equally often behind the positive and negative stimuli.

Question 32

cognitive bias modification in obesity (Stice, Lawrence et al., 2017)

Answer 32

Training attention and responses away from unhealthy and towards healthy foods

Intervention v control Ps showed sig reduced brain reward and attention region response to high-calorie food images, reduced monetary valuation of high-calorie foods, and greater body fat loss over 4-week period

Question 33

appraisal theories (Lazarus, 1966, 1982)

Answer 33

Appraisals strat emotion process

Can occur automatically (w/o awareness/control)/consciously (deliberate, volitional)

Consist of diff levels of appraisal (e.g. primary, secondary, reappraisal)

But too slow?

Don’t fully explain emotions

Question 34

emotion regulation

Answer 34

Management and control of emotional states by various processes (e.g. selective attention, appraisal)

Automatic/controlled conscious/unconscious, affecting one/more points in emotion generative process (Gross and Thompson, 2007)

The role of appraisals in emotion gives us scope to alter our emotions by changing our appraisals.

This describes one mechanism of emotion regulation, which is a very important skill that is implicated in most psychological disorders.

Examples of strategies used e.g. by a socially phobic individual could be to avoid stressful social situations, or modify the situation by bringing a friend along, or by using attentional deployment (having pleasant distracting thoughts) during the situation, or by not expressing their anxiety.

Various strategies are used at different points in time. Some strategies are pro-active (e.g. Reappraisal) and others are reactive (e.g. Response suppression).

Question 35

Ochsner and Gross (2008)

Answer 35

1. Behavioural control (suppressing reactive emotional expression)
2. Attentional control (distraction)
3. Cog change (reappraisal) – proactive

The Ochsner and Gross model of emotion regulation (e.g. 2008) includes these different stages and suggests they have partially distinct neural correlates.

Pro-active strategies such as reappraisal (prepare yourself to interpret the information differently before you experience it) are generally believed to be more effective than reactive strategies such as response suppression (suppress the emotion once you start feeling it).

Reappraisal modifies the experiential, behavioural, physiological and neural components of emotion as intended = successful strategy.

It does not consume cognitive resources much as does not impair memory.

Response suppression is effortful, leads to sympathetic arousal and takes up cognitive resources (impairs memory for event). It can also interfere with social interactions (if chronic).

However, there are also cultural influences on emotion regulation strategies, e.g. expressive suppression is detrimental to Westerners but not people from Asian cultures in which emotional control is encouraged.

Question 36

neuroimaging studies of emotion regulation

Answer 36

Neuroimaging studies of emotion regulation provide us with insight into the distinct neural mechanisms underlying different forms of emotion regulation.

They also show us that many of the mechanisms are not unique to emotion regulation but are also involved in cognitive control; e.g. Inhibiting the influence of distractors in a purely cognitive task.

For example, the DLPFC appears to play an important role in working memory and emotion regulation.

Question 37

distraction v appraisal

Answer 37

May work by occupying limited capacity of WM w/ info that ‘displaces’ neg emotional material

A meta-analysis suggested that distracting oneself or reappraising (re-interpreting) an emotion-eliciting situation are the most efficient ways to prevent unwanted emotions.

Expressive suppression is not as effective – it increases physiological arousal and fails to change one’s feelings (Webb, Miles & Sheeran, 2012).

Van Dillen and colleagues compared the neural basis of distraction and reappraisal.

They examined distraction as one emotion regulation strategy by asking participants to view and rate their mood in response to viewing negative images but “filling up” working memory with a simple or complex arithmetic task in-between.

Their results showed that a more demanding cognitive task reduces negative mood. In their fMRI study this appeared to be related to increased DLPFC activation during the complex arithmetic task.

Question 38

abnormal emotion regulation in depression (Siegle et al., 2002)

Answer 38

Ps viewed word, then perf WM task

+ word (150ms) xxxxxx (9s)

Pos, neg/neutral? – emotion (valence identification)

Xxxx (1s) 32 47 68 (150ms)

68 (9s) seen before – cognition (WM)

Question 39

sustained amygdala response to neg emotional words in depression

Answer 39

Patients with depression showed a sustained amygdala response to the negative word that persisted through the working memory portion of each trial

Question 40

decreased emotion regulation in depression

Answer 40

Inverse r’ship between DLPFC and amygdala response to neg words

Whilst healthy controls showed an increase in DLPFC activation during the memory task, and an associated reduction in amygdala response, patients with depression did not show this “switching off” effect during the working memory (distraction) part of the trial.

Question 41

SA (control)

Answer 41

Another cognitive function used in emotion regulation is selective attention to affective stimuli; in particular the ability to successfully ignore negative stimuli.

In your last practical, we had a go at and discussed the emotional stroop test.

One brain region that is frequently activated when people try to overcome interference or cognitive conflict in tasks like the stroop is the anterior cingulate (AC).

Studies suggest that the more ventral, anterior portion of the AC (‘affective division’) is involved in overcoming interference in the emotional stroop, whilst a more dorsal portion (‘cognitive division’) is active during the non-emotional stroop test.

Question 42

anterior cingulate gyrus

Answer 42

A large number of cognitive and emotional studies support this division into “affective” and “cognitive” divisions.

BUT following a large number of neuroimaging studies in the past 15 years, this view has recently been revised, with suggestions that the dorsal / ventral split relates more to appraisal and expression vs regulation of emotion (in particular fear).

These studies do however suggest an important role for the ventral AC in regulation of emotional states, which is supported by lesion studies.

Question 43

response to neg v neutral words in depression (Mitterschifthaler et al., 2008)

Answer 43

Why are we so interested in the anterior cingulate cortex and its role in emotion regulation?

Well because it is implicated in the induction of sad moods and appears to underlie the negative cognitive bias (selective attention to mood-relevant stimuli) in depression.

You may recall this slide from the practical showing that patients with depression show greater interference from negative emotional words in the emotional stroop task, combined with increased activation in the rostral anterior cingulate (brodmann area 32).

This increased activation is positively associated with the level of stroop interference.

Question 44

bias towards sad targets in depression linked to increased anterior cingulate response (Elliott et al., 2002)

Answer 44

An earlier study had suggested that the same anterior cingulate region (BA 32/24) mediated the attentional bias to sad target words in an emotional go / no-go task in depressed patients.

In this task, participants have to either press (go) for sad words (and ignore happy distractor words) or vice-versa.

Question 45

decreases in ventral anterior cingulate responses to increasing intensity sad faces correlated w/ antidepressant response

Answer 45

Another study suggests that this anterior cingulate response – in this case to increasing intensities of sad facial expressions – changes with successful antidepressant treatment. Region showing correlation is pregenual AC (BA 32 / 24)

Question 46

brain imaging studies –> new treatments for depression targeting brain activity

Answer 46

Brain imaging studies are therefore helping us to understand the neural basis of how cognition and emotion interact in healthy controls and in patients with psychological disorders. This information is helping us to develop novel treatments, some of which are directly targeting the abnormal patterns of brain activity

Question 47

brain stimulation decreases overactive brain region linked to sadness (Mayberg et al., 2005)

Answer 47

Early PET imaging work by Mayberg and colleagues showed that the very ventral AC (subgenual cingulate, BA 25) was implicated in both transient sadness in healthy controls and depressed mood (increased blood flow in both states).

Decreases in blood flow in this region followed a range of successful treatments for depression.

Following pioneering experimental surgery on 6 patients with very severe depression, Mayberg et al. found that stimulating the white matter in BA 25 caused dramatic improvements in mood and reversed the abnormal pattern of brain activity (decreased Cg25 and increased Cg24).

We still don’t really know how deep brain stimulation works or how these findings relate to the fMRI findings presented in the previous slides but there is intriguing overlap in the involvement of the AC in sad mood, negative cognitive bias and depression.

Question 48

less invasive treatments targeting brain activity

Answer 48

Brain imaging studies are therefore helping us to understand the neural basis of how cognition and emotion interact in healthy controls and in patients with psychological disorders.

This information is helping us to develop novel treatments, some of which are directly targeting the abnormal patterns of brain activity.

Question 49

brain training to improve emotion regulation? (Schweizer et al., 2011/2)

Answer 49

Groups receive 20 days of emotional WM (n-back) training/control training

Task design of the eWM training (dual n-back) task for a sample training block where n-back1.

Stimuli with a bold pink border represent target stimuli for the current block.

Participants respond with a button press if the target stimulus in either or both modalities matches the stimulus n positions back.

In this n-back1 example, there is a match because, for the visuospatial modality, the current face appears in the same location as the face 1-position back; and for the auditory target, the word (RAPE) is the same as the word

Question 50

brain training task activates WM network (fronto-parietal regions) and deactivates emotional regions (amygdala, insula)

Answer 50

Task-demand related BOLD activation that was observed comparing conditions of lower task-demand (n-back1) and higher task-demand (n-back3) at pre-training.

All reported BOLD activation was significantly different across these conditions at the whole-brain level, with significance levels corrected for false discovery rates at PFDR0.05.

Activation increases (B) and activation decreases (C) in condition n-back3 compared with n-back1.

Question 51

perf also improves on untrained emotion regulation tasks

Answer 51

The graph on the left shows that eWM training improved emotional stroop task performance (reduced reaction times in both congruent and incongruent face/word conditions at post-training).

The graph on the right shows that eWM training resulted in less emotional distress when watching negative films in a “regulate” condition.

This reduction in emotional distress was accompanied by increased brain activation in the fronto-parietal working memory network that is involved in emotion regulation; “this notably included the sgACC, a region crucially involved in mood regulation (Davidson et al., 2002; Drevets et al., 2008).”

Question 52

ventromedial prefrontal cortex

Answer 52

Lesions result in widespread impairment of emotional expression identification (visual and auditory), disinhibition, impulsiveness, misinterpo of other people’s moods, impaired decision-making

Question 53

frontal lobe injury

Answer 53

Phineas Gage

Question 54

the Iowa gambling task

Answer 54

Different groups show impaired decision-making over the course of the Iowa gambling task.

Patients with ventromedial frontal lobe lesions are particularly impaired and people with substance use disorders also fail to show the adaptive learning pattern.

Question 55

physiological arousal (Bechara et al., 1999)

Answer 55

Examining physiological arousal (skin conductance responses – the same measure that is used in “lie detector” tests) shows that patients with lesions to emotional parts of the brain – the amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex – fail to show normal changes in physiological arousal when they perform the card task.

Normally, the brain generates arousing “warning signals” that the disadvantageous decks are risky and may lose a lot of money.

The patients are either not generating the bodily responses to reward and punishment or they are failing to link these to future decisions (i.e. failing to anticipate in a bodily sense the outcome of their choices).

Question 56

somatic marker hypothesis (Damasio, 1990s)

Answer 56

see notes as too much for card

Question 57

brain activation during risky v safe choices

Answer 57

A number of studies have examined the brain basis of good decision-making in the Iowa Gambling Task and suggest that the prefrontal cortex is important.

Greater activation here is associated with better performance on the task (making more ‘safe’ decisions and winning more money).

Question 58

the role of conscious knowledge - Ps asked at end

Answer 58

Tell me all you know about game

Did you find any difference between decks?

Suppose you select 10 new cards from deck A/B/C/D, will you on average win/lose money?

Retrospectively, if you have to choose only one deck, which one will you choose in order to earn as much money as possible?

Question 59

the role of conscious knowledge - then categorised as

Answer 59

Level 0: no conscious knowledge specifying preference for one of the two best decks;

Level 1: conscious knowledge specifying a preference for one of the two best decks but not about the outcomes of the decks that could provide a basis for that preference;

Level 2: conscious knowledge specifying a preference for one of the two best decks and has conscious knowledge about the outcomes that could provide a basis for that preference.