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cognition Flashcards

1
Q

What is the difference between memory and metacognition?

A

memory - information that persists over time, acquired through various experiences, and can be stored and retrieved later
metacognition - awareness of your own cognitive processes

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2
Q

What is explicit memory?

A

involves information that we consciously recall, these memories require effort and thought

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3
Q

Describe the difference between semantic memory and episodic memory?

A

semantic - involves knowledge, facts, and general information
episodic - relates to personal experiences or events

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4
Q

What is the difference between explicit memories and implicit memories?

A

explicit - involves information that we consciously recall, these memories require effort and thought
implicit - consists of information or skills we learn without being fully aware of it

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5
Q

Provide an example of explicit memories and implicit memories.

A

explicit - studying for ap psych test by actively learning the terms and concepts
implicit - remembering the different smells of the room you’re studying in

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6
Q

Define procedural memory.

A

helps us recall how to perform tasks, such as motor skills and routines

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7
Q

Describe prospective memory.

A

involves remembering to perform future actions, like recalling to take medication at a specific time or attending a meeting next week

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8
Q

Describe parallel processing.

A

it handles multiple streams of information simultaneously

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9
Q

Was are examples of retention questions?

A
  • Can you recall the information?
  • Can you recognize the information?
  • Can you quickly relearn the information?
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10
Q

What is long-term potentiation?

A

strengthens the synaptic connections between neurons in the brain through repeated activation, allows the brain to form stronger and more efficient neural connections, which enhances our ability to store and retain knowledge and skills over time

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11
Q

Explain the function of the visuospatial sketchpad in the working memory model.

A

this part of working memory handles visual and spatial information, it is what allows us to visualize objects and their location

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12
Q

Describe the role of the phonological loop in working memory.

A

deals with verbal and auditory information

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13
Q

What are the two components of the phonological loop, and what does each do?

A

phonological store - also known as the “inner ear”, holds spoken words and sounds for a short period of time
articulatory rehearsal process - also known as the “inner voice”, helps you repeat and rehearse verbal information to keep it active in your working memory

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14
Q

What is the function of the central executive in the working memory model?

A
  • acts as control centre of working memory
  • focusing attention, prioritizing tasks, switching between different activities, integrating information
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15
Q

How does the episodic buffer integrate information within the working memory model?

A

how long-term memory integrates with working memory and how different types of information, such as wounds and visuals, are combined

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16
Q

Compare and contrast iconic memory and echoic memory.

A

iconic - visual sensory memory, fraction of a second
echoic - auditory sensory memory, lasts 1-4 seconds

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17
Q

Describe automatic processing.

A

the information is gathered with little or no conscious effort

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18
Q

What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?

A

maintenance - when you repeatedly go over information to prevent forgetting
elaborative - when you connect new information to something you already know, which makes it easier to remember

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19
Q

structural processing

A

superficial level, the focus is on the physical appearance

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20
Q

phonemic processing

A

deeper level, focus is on how the information sounds

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21
Q

semantic processing

A

deepest level, focus is on the meaning of the information

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22
Q

What encoding and how does it work with memory?

A

the process and strategies we use to take in information and store it in our long-term memory

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23
Q

visual encoding

A

when we encode information by the visual elements we observe

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24
Q

example of visual encoding

A

when reading a book, certain sections of the book have a specific font or a specific color

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25
acoustic encoding
when the different sound elements help with the encoding process
26
example of acoustic encoding
remembering information using rhymes
27
tactile encoding
when we use the feeling of touch when encoding the information
28
example of tactile encoding
remembering the feel of certain textures
29
organizational encoding
when we process information in terms of specific sequence
30
example of organizational encoding
lists, groups, or focus on a relationship between different items
31
elaborative encoding
when you pair new information with prior knowledge
32
example of elaborative encoding
remembering new information by linking it to information you already know
33
semantic encoding
when you focus on the meaning or context of the information
34
example of semantic encoding
deep processing and one of the most effective encoding methods
35
Describe a mnemonic device.
help people remember information more easily by organizing it in a way that's easier to recall
36
What is the method of loci?
helps you remember information by associating it with specific locations in a familiar setting
37
How can distributed practice impact a person's ability to remember more information?
when we space out our studying and practice, you will often see real learning. it allows your brain to better encode and store the information. it also allows you to keep practicing the information and focus on areas where you are struggling
38
Describe the testing effect.
assesses your understanding of the information, helps improve your memory
39
Describe the serial position effect and how our memory is affected by the order of the information.
a set order in which the information is presented to us and effects how we process the information. information at the beginning of a list is more memorable because it has had more time to be rehearsed and encoded into long-term memory. information at the end of a list is easier to recall because it's still fresh. information in the middle of the list is most difficult to remember since it doesn't get practiced as often and isn't the most recent information
40
sensory memory
the briefest form of memory, only lasting a few seconds
41
short-term memory
typically holds around 7 items at a time and usually only for 20 to 30 seconds
42
working memory
a more updated dynamic form of our short-term memory, not only stores information but also processes information
43
long-term memory
has an unlimited capacity and can store information for long periods of time
44
Which areas of the brain work with explicit memory?
frontal lobe, hippocampus
45
What is memory consolidation?
a process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories
46
What areas of the brain work with implicit memory?
cerebellum, basil ganglia
47
Explain how an individual's emotion impacts their memory.
our bodies release hormones that promote memory formation or cause flashbulb memories
48
What is an example of a flashbulb memory?
you can probably ask what someone was doing on 9/11 and they can probably tell you exactly where they were and what they were doing on that day
49
What is autobiographical memory?
involves memories connected to our own lives, generally these are more memorable because of the personal relevance these memories have
50
What does it mean if someone has a highly superior autobiographical memory?
they have an extraordinary ability to remember events from their own lives, this is often due to the individuals biological processes
51
What generally happens when the left or right hippocampus is damaged?
left - struggling to remember verbal information right - struggling to remember visual information
52
amnesia
involves the temporary or permanent loss of memory
53
anterograde amnesia
when a person can no longer form new memories, this type of amnesia almost always involves something happening to the hippocampus
54
retrograde amnesia
when a person can no longer retrieve past information, this could happen because of a blow to a person's head
55
source amnesia
when a person can remember the information but cannot recall where or how they learned it
56
infantile amnesia
when an adult can not remember personal experiences from the early years of life
57
What is Alzheimer's disease?
a neurodegenerative disorder that impairs memory and cognitive functions of an individual
58
What is the difference between recall and recognition?
recall - when we retrieve information without any cues or hints recognition - when we use retrieval cues to help access the information
59
context-dependent memory
when retrieval is improved when you're in the same environment as when you first learned the information
60
mood-congruent memory
when you're more likely to recall memories that match your current mood
61
state-dependent memory
when memory retrieval is improved if you're in the same physical or mental state as when the memory was encoded
62
Explain what retrieval cues are and how they impact the retrieval process.
retrieval cues are ways to help remember information. being in the same condition as when you learned the information can help remember and retrieve that information.
63
Provide an example of how you can use retrieval cues.
you can learn names of classmates by connecting their name with where they sit in the class, hair color, or shared interests
64
Describe Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve.
first, there is a steep decline in memory retention. over time, the rate of forgetting slows down and eventually levels off
65
What happens if there is an error with the encoding process and what happens to the encoding process as a person ages?
memory retrieval can be enhanced when the conditions during recall match the conditions present during the encoding of the memory
66
What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
when you know something but you can't quite think of the exact name
67
Describe the difference between proactive and retroactive interference.
proactive - when older memories interfere with the recall of new memories retroactive - when newer memories interfere with the recall of older memories
68
What is the difference between eustress and distress?
eustress - stress that is perceived as beneficial, and is often caused by positive life events distress - stress that is perceived to be detrimental, and is often caused by negative life events
69
ego
controls a person's impulse, deals with external stimuli, the overseer of the superego and the id
70
superego
located in a person's preconscious, represents a person's ideals, judgments, and individuals moral components of their personality
71
id
located in a person's unconscious, strives to satisfy a person's most basic drive, focus is solely on pleasure
72
Explain how the ego works with the superego and id.
the ego's job is to work with the superego and id, balances the id's desire for instant gratification and the super ego's moral decisions
73
Explain what defense mechanisms are and what Freud believed they are used for.
these mechanisms allow the go to protect itself and reduce anxiety, generally theses mechanisms focus on distorting reality and happen unconsciously, the most basic mechanism is repression of memories
74
What is constructive memory?
when we remember information, the brain combines actual stored information with additional elements such as assumptions, expectations, and even new information
75
Define reconsolidated.
the process of altering memories that have been recalled before they are stored again
76
How can the misinformation effect impact a person's memory?
if an individual does alter a memory with misleading or false information it can distort the memory
77
sensory memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
78
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
79
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
80
echoic memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled with 3 or 4 seconds
81
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
82
framing
the way information is presented or "framed" to someone, which can significantly influence their perception and decision-making about that information, even if the underlying facts remain the same
83
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood
84
state-dependent memory
the phenomenon where information is more easily retrieved when a person is in the same physiological or psychological state as they were when they originally encoded the information
85
context effects on memory
how the context in which something is experienced can impact perception and recall of the event or information
86
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
87
method of loci
a mnemonic technique where a person mentally associates information they need to remember with specific location is a familiar place, like a journey through their house, to enhance recall by visualizing each piece of information at a particular "locus" or location along the route
88
peg-word method
a mnemonic device where you associate new information with a pre-memorized list of easily remembered words that are linked to numbers or sequence, allowing you to recall information in a specific order by mentally visualizing the associations between the peg words and the items you need to remember
89
next-in-line effect
the cognitive bias where a person has a poor memory of information presented immediately before their turn to speak or perform
90
serial-position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
91
recall
the act of retrieving information from memory without any specific cues
92
recognition
a type of memory retrieval in which one must identify present information as having been previously presented
93
true memory
an accurate recollection of a past event
94
false memory
a distorted or fabricated recollection of an event that did not actually happen
95
misinformation effect
the phenomenon where a person's memory of an event becomes distorted or inaccurate due to expose to misleading information after the event has occurred
96
source amnesia
the inability to recall the origin or source of a memory
97
interference
a memory phenomenon where the retrieval of one memory is disrupted by the presence of similar, competing memories
98
amnesia
a significant loss of memory, where a person is unable to recall past events or experiences, often caused by a traumatic brain injury
99
proactive interference
the phenomenon where previously learned information hinders the ability to learn or recall new information
100
retroactive interference
the phenomenon where newly learned information disrupts the recall of previously learned information
101
retrograde amnesia
the inability to recall memories or events that occurred before a traumatic event or onset of a medical condition
102
anterograde amnesia
a condition where a person is unable to form new memories after a traumatic event
103
heuristic
a mental shortcut that people use to make quick decisions or judgments, often based on prior experiences
104
algorithm
a well-defined, step-by-step procedure or set of rules that guarantees a correct solution to a problem
105
representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut where people categorize or judge something based on how closely it resembles a typical example or stereotype they already have in mind, often leading to quick decision but potentially inaccurate judgments due to reliance on preconceived notions or prototypes
106
availability heuristic
a mental shortcut where people judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples of that event come to mind
107
schema
a cognitive framework or mental structure that helps organize and interpret information based on past experiences
108
prototype
the best or most typical example of a category, acting as a mental representation that helps individuals quickly categorize new information by comparing it to this ideal model within that category
109
concept
a fundamental idea or mental representation of a psychological phenomenon, which helps explain human behavior and mental processes, encompassing abstract thoughts and theories studied within the field of psychology
110
mental set
the tendency to solve a problem using the same strategy that worked in the past, even when a different approach might be more effective, essentially causing an individual to become fixated on familiar solutions and overlooking alternative options
111
functional fixedness
a cognitive bias where someone is unable to think of a new use for an object beyond its typical or traditional function
112
confirmation bias
the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one's preexisting beliefs or hypotheses
113
belief bias
the tendency to judge the strength of an argument based on whether the conclusion aligns with one's existing beliefs, rather than evaluating the logical validity of the argument itself
114
belief perseverance
the tendency for individuals to continue holding onto a belief even when presented with evidence that contradicts it, essentially clinging to their initial idea despite new information disproving it

ap psychology (5 decks)

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