cognition Flashcards
What is the difference between memory and metacognition?
memory - information that persists over time, acquired through various experiences, and can be stored and retrieved later
metacognition - awareness of your own cognitive processes
What is explicit memory?
involves information that we consciously recall, these memories require effort and thought
Describe the difference between semantic memory and episodic memory?
semantic - involves knowledge, facts, and general information
episodic - relates to personal experiences or events
What is the difference between explicit memories and implicit memories?
explicit - involves information that we consciously recall, these memories require effort and thought
implicit - consists of information or skills we learn without being fully aware of it
Provide an example of explicit memories and implicit memories.
explicit - studying for ap psych test by actively learning the terms and concepts
implicit - remembering the different smells of the room you’re studying in
Define procedural memory.
helps us recall how to perform tasks, such as motor skills and routines
Describe prospective memory.
involves remembering to perform future actions, like recalling to take medication at a specific time or attending a meeting next week
Describe parallel processing.
it handles multiple streams of information simultaneously
Was are examples of retention questions?
- Can you recall the information?
- Can you recognize the information?
- Can you quickly relearn the information?
What is long-term potentiation?
strengthens the synaptic connections between neurons in the brain through repeated activation, allows the brain to form stronger and more efficient neural connections, which enhances our ability to store and retain knowledge and skills over time
Explain the function of the visuospatial sketchpad in the working memory model.
this part of working memory handles visual and spatial information, it is what allows us to visualize objects and their location
Describe the role of the phonological loop in working memory.
deals with verbal and auditory information
What are the two components of the phonological loop, and what does each do?
phonological store - also known as the “inner ear”, holds spoken words and sounds for a short period of time
articulatory rehearsal process - also known as the “inner voice”, helps you repeat and rehearse verbal information to keep it active in your working memory
What is the function of the central executive in the working memory model?
- acts as control centre of working memory
- focusing attention, prioritizing tasks, switching between different activities, integrating information
How does the episodic buffer integrate information within the working memory model?
how long-term memory integrates with working memory and how different types of information, such as wounds and visuals, are combined
Compare and contrast iconic memory and echoic memory.
iconic - visual sensory memory, fraction of a second
echoic - auditory sensory memory, lasts 1-4 seconds
Describe automatic processing.
the information is gathered with little or no conscious effort
What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?
maintenance - when you repeatedly go over information to prevent forgetting
elaborative - when you connect new information to something you already know, which makes it easier to remember
structural processing
superficial level, the focus is on the physical appearance
phonemic processing
deeper level, focus is on how the information sounds
semantic processing
deepest level, focus is on the meaning of the information
What encoding and how does it work with memory?
the process and strategies we use to take in information and store it in our long-term memory
visual encoding
when we encode information by the visual elements we observe
example of visual encoding
when reading a book, certain sections of the book have a specific font or a specific color
acoustic encoding
when the different sound elements help with the encoding process
example of acoustic encoding
remembering information using rhymes
tactile encoding
when we use the feeling of touch when encoding the information
example of tactile encoding
remembering the feel of certain textures
organizational encoding
when we process information in terms of specific sequence
example of organizational encoding
lists, groups, or focus on a relationship between different items
elaborative encoding
when you pair new information with prior knowledge
example of elaborative encoding
remembering new information by linking it to information you already know
semantic encoding
when you focus on the meaning or context of the information
example of semantic encoding
deep processing and one of the most effective encoding methods
Describe a mnemonic device.
help people remember information more easily by organizing it in a way that’s easier to recall
What is the method of loci?
helps you remember information by associating it with specific locations in a familiar setting
How can distributed practice impact a person’s ability to remember more information?
when we space out our studying and practice, you will often see real learning. it allows your brain to better encode and store the information. it also allows you to keep practicing the information and focus on areas where you are struggling
Describe the testing effect.
assesses your understanding of the information, helps improve your memory
Describe the serial position effect and how our memory is affected by the order of the information.
a set order in which the information is presented to us and effects how we process the information. information at the beginning of a list is more memorable because it has had more time to be rehearsed and encoded into long-term memory. information at the end of a list is easier to recall because it’s still fresh. information in the middle of the list is most difficult to remember since it doesn’t get practiced as often and isn’t the most recent information
sensory memory
the briefest form of memory, only lasting a few seconds
short-term memory
typically holds around 7 items at a time and usually only for 20 to 30 seconds
working memory
a more updated dynamic form of our short-term memory, not only stores information but also processes information
long-term memory
has an unlimited capacity and can store information for long periods of time
Which areas of the brain work with explicit memory?
frontal lobe, hippocampus
What is memory consolidation?
a process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories
What areas of the brain work with implicit memory?
cerebellum, basil ganglia
Explain how an individual’s emotion impacts their memory.
our bodies release hormones that promote memory formation or cause flashbulb memories
What is an example of a flashbulb memory?
you can probably ask what someone was doing on 9/11 and they can probably tell you exactly where they were and what they were doing on that day
What is autobiographical memory?
involves memories connected to our own lives, generally these are more memorable because of the personal relevance these memories have
What does it mean if someone has a highly superior autobiographical memory?
they have an extraordinary ability to remember events from their own lives, this is often due to the individuals biological processes
What generally happens when the left or right hippocampus is damaged?
left - struggling to remember verbal information
right - struggling to remember visual information
amnesia
involves the temporary or permanent loss of memory
anterograde amnesia
when a person can no longer form new memories, this type of amnesia almost always involves something happening to the hippocampus
retrograde amnesia
when a person can no longer retrieve past information, this could happen because of a blow to a person’s head
source amnesia
when a person can remember the information but cannot recall where or how they learned it
infantile amnesia
when an adult can not remember personal experiences from the early years of life
What is Alzheimer’s disease?
a neurodegenerative disorder that impairs memory and cognitive functions of an individual
What is the difference between recall and recognition?
recall - when we retrieve information without any cues or hints
recognition - when we use retrieval cues to help access the information
context-dependent memory
when retrieval is improved when you’re in the same environment as when you first learned the information
mood-congruent memory
when you’re more likely to recall memories that match your current mood
state-dependent memory
when memory retrieval is improved if you’re in the same physical or mental state as when the memory was encoded
Explain what retrieval cues are and how they impact the retrieval process.
retrieval cues are ways to help remember information. being in the same condition as when you learned the information can help remember and retrieve that information.
Provide an example of how you can use retrieval cues.
you can learn names of classmates by connecting their name with where they sit in the class, hair color, or shared interests
Describe Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve.
first, there is a steep decline in memory retention. over time, the rate of forgetting slows down and eventually levels off
What happens if there is an error with the encoding process and what happens to the encoding process as a person ages?
memory retrieval can be enhanced when the conditions during recall match the conditions present during the encoding of the memory
What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?
when you know something but you can’t quite think of the exact name
Describe the difference between proactive and retroactive interference.
proactive - when older memories interfere with the recall of new memories
retroactive - when newer memories interfere with the recall of older memories
What is the difference between eustress and distress?
eustress - stress that is perceived as beneficial, and is often caused by positive life events
distress - stress that is perceived to be detrimental, and is often caused by negative life events
ego
controls a person’s impulse, deals with external stimuli, the overseer of the superego and the id
superego
located in a person’s preconscious, represents a person’s ideals, judgments, and individuals moral components of their personality
id
located in a person’s unconscious, strives to satisfy a person’s most basic drive, focus is solely on pleasure
Explain how the ego works with the superego and id.
the ego’s job is to work with the superego and id, balances the id’s desire for instant gratification and the super ego’s moral decisions
Explain what defense mechanisms are and what Freud believed they are used for.
these mechanisms allow the go to protect itself and reduce anxiety, generally theses mechanisms focus on distorting reality and happen unconsciously, the most basic mechanism is repression of memories
What is constructive memory?
when we remember information, the brain combines actual stored information with additional elements such as assumptions, expectations, and even new information
Define reconsolidated.
the process of altering memories that have been recalled before they are stored again
How can the misinformation effect impact a person’s memory?
if an individual does alter a memory with misleading or false information it can distort the memory
sensory memory
the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system
short-term memory
activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten
iconic memory
a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second
echoic memory
momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled with 3 or 4 seconds
priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory
framing
the way information is presented or “framed” to someone, which can significantly influence their perception and decision-making about that information, even if the underlying facts remain the same
mood-congruent memory
the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood
state-dependent memory
the phenomenon where information is more easily retrieved when a person is in the same physiological or psychological state as they were when they originally encoded the information
context effects on memory
how the context in which something is experienced can impact perception and recall of the event or information
chunking
organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically
method of loci
a mnemonic technique where a person mentally associates information they need to remember with specific location is a familiar place, like a journey through their house, to enhance recall by visualizing each piece of information at a particular “locus” or location along the route
peg-word method
a mnemonic device where you associate new information with a pre-memorized list of easily remembered words that are linked to numbers or sequence, allowing you to recall information in a specific order by mentally visualizing the associations between the peg words and the items you need to remember
next-in-line effect
the cognitive bias where a person has a poor memory of information presented immediately before their turn to speak or perform
serial-position effect
our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list
recall
the act of retrieving information from memory without any specific cues
recognition
a type of memory retrieval in which one must identify present information as having been previously presented
true memory
an accurate recollection of a past event
false memory
a distorted or fabricated recollection of an event that did not actually happen
misinformation effect
the phenomenon where a person’s memory of an event becomes distorted or inaccurate due to expose to misleading information after the event has occurred
source amnesia
the inability to recall the origin or source of a memory
interference
a memory phenomenon where the retrieval of one memory is disrupted by the presence of similar, competing memories
amnesia
a significant loss of memory, where a person is unable to recall past events or experiences, often caused by a traumatic brain injury
proactive interference
the phenomenon where previously learned information hinders the ability to learn or recall new information
retroactive interference
the phenomenon where newly learned information disrupts the recall of previously learned information
retrograde amnesia
the inability to recall memories or events that occurred before a traumatic event or onset of a medical condition
anterograde amnesia
a condition where a person is unable to form new memories after a traumatic event
heuristic
a mental shortcut that people use to make quick decisions or judgments, often based on prior experiences
algorithm
a well-defined, step-by-step procedure or set of rules that guarantees a correct solution to a problem
representativeness heuristic
a mental shortcut where people categorize or judge something based on how closely it resembles a typical example or stereotype they already have in mind, often leading to quick decision but potentially inaccurate judgments due to reliance on preconceived notions or prototypes
availability heuristic
a mental shortcut where people judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples of that event come to mind
schema
a cognitive framework or mental structure that helps organize and interpret information based on past experiences
prototype
the best or most typical example of a category, acting as a mental representation that helps individuals quickly categorize new information by comparing it to this ideal model within that category
concept
a fundamental idea or mental representation of a psychological phenomenon, which helps explain human behavior and mental processes, encompassing abstract thoughts and theories studied within the field of psychology
mental set
the tendency to solve a problem using the same strategy that worked in the past, even when a different approach might be more effective, essentially causing an individual to become fixated on familiar solutions and overlooking alternative options
functional fixedness
a cognitive bias where someone is unable to think of a new use for an object beyond its typical or traditional function
confirmation bias
the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses
belief bias
the tendency to judge the strength of an argument based on whether the conclusion aligns with one’s existing beliefs, rather than evaluating the logical validity of the argument itself
belief perseverance
the tendency for individuals to continue holding onto a belief even when presented with evidence that contradicts it, essentially clinging to their initial idea despite new information disproving it
