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ap psychology > cognition > Flashcards

cognition Flashcards

1
Q

What is the difference between memory and metacognition?

A

memory - information that persists over time, acquired through various experiences, and can be stored and retrieved later
metacognition - awareness of your own cognitive processes

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2
Q

What is explicit memory?

A

involves information that we consciously recall, these memories require effort and thought

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3
Q

Describe the difference between semantic memory and episodic memory?

A

semantic - involves knowledge, facts, and general information
episodic - relates to personal experiences or events

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4
Q

What is the difference between explicit memories and implicit memories?

A

explicit - involves information that we consciously recall, these memories require effort and thought
implicit - consists of information or skills we learn without being fully aware of it

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5
Q

Provide an example of explicit memories and implicit memories.

A

explicit - studying for ap psych test by actively learning the terms and concepts
implicit - remembering the different smells of the room you’re studying in

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6
Q

Define procedural memory.

A

helps us recall how to perform tasks, such as motor skills and routines

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7
Q

Describe prospective memory.

A

involves remembering to perform future actions, like recalling to take medication at a specific time or attending a meeting next week

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8
Q

Describe parallel processing.

A

it handles multiple streams of information simultaneously

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9
Q

Was are examples of retention questions?

A
  • Can you recall the information?
  • Can you recognize the information?
  • Can you quickly relearn the information?
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10
Q

What is long-term potentiation?

A

strengthens the synaptic connections between neurons in the brain through repeated activation, allows the brain to form stronger and more efficient neural connections, which enhances our ability to store and retain knowledge and skills over time

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11
Q

Explain the function of the visuospatial sketchpad in the working memory model.

A

this part of working memory handles visual and spatial information, it is what allows us to visualize objects and their location

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12
Q

Describe the role of the phonological loop in working memory.

A

deals with verbal and auditory information

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13
Q

What are the two components of the phonological loop, and what does each do?

A

phonological store - also known as the “inner ear”, holds spoken words and sounds for a short period of time
articulatory rehearsal process - also known as the “inner voice”, helps you repeat and rehearse verbal information to keep it active in your working memory

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14
Q

What is the function of the central executive in the working memory model?

A
  • acts as control centre of working memory
  • focusing attention, prioritizing tasks, switching between different activities, integrating information
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15
Q

How does the episodic buffer integrate information within the working memory model?

A

how long-term memory integrates with working memory and how different types of information, such as wounds and visuals, are combined

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16
Q

Compare and contrast iconic memory and echoic memory.

A

iconic - visual sensory memory, fraction of a second
echoic - auditory sensory memory, lasts 1-4 seconds

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17
Q

Describe automatic processing.

A

the information is gathered with little or no conscious effort

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18
Q

What is the difference between maintenance rehearsal and elaborative rehearsal?

A

maintenance - when you repeatedly go over information to prevent forgetting
elaborative - when you connect new information to something you already know, which makes it easier to remember

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19
Q

structural processing

A

superficial level, the focus is on the physical appearance

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20
Q

phonemic processing

A

deeper level, focus is on how the information sounds

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21
Q

semantic processing

A

deepest level, focus is on the meaning of the information

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22
Q

What encoding and how does it work with memory?

A

the process and strategies we use to take in information and store it in our long-term memory

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23
Q

visual encoding

A

when we encode information by the visual elements we observe

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24
Q

example of visual encoding

A

when reading a book, certain sections of the book have a specific font or a specific color

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25
Q

acoustic encoding

A

when the different sound elements help with the encoding process

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26
Q

example of acoustic encoding

A

remembering information using rhymes

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27
Q

tactile encoding

A

when we use the feeling of touch when encoding the information

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28
Q

example of tactile encoding

A

remembering the feel of certain textures

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29
Q

organizational encoding

A

when we process information in terms of specific sequence

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30
Q

example of organizational encoding

A

lists, groups, or focus on a relationship between different items

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31
Q

elaborative encoding

A

when you pair new information with prior knowledge

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32
Q

example of elaborative encoding

A

remembering new information by linking it to information you already know

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33
Q

semantic encoding

A

when you focus on the meaning or context of the information

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34
Q

example of semantic encoding

A

deep processing and one of the most effective encoding methods

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35
Q

Describe a mnemonic device.

A

help people remember information more easily by organizing it in a way that’s easier to recall

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36
Q

What is the method of loci?

A

helps you remember information by associating it with specific locations in a familiar setting

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37
Q

How can distributed practice impact a person’s ability to remember more information?

A

when we space out our studying and practice, you will often see real learning. it allows your brain to better encode and store the information. it also allows you to keep practicing the information and focus on areas where you are struggling

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38
Q

Describe the testing effect.

A

assesses your understanding of the information, helps improve your memory

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39
Q

Describe the serial position effect and how our memory is affected by the order of the information.

A

a set order in which the information is presented to us and effects how we process the information. information at the beginning of a list is more memorable because it has had more time to be rehearsed and encoded into long-term memory. information at the end of a list is easier to recall because it’s still fresh. information in the middle of the list is most difficult to remember since it doesn’t get practiced as often and isn’t the most recent information

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40
Q

sensory memory

A

the briefest form of memory, only lasting a few seconds

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41
Q

short-term memory

A

typically holds around 7 items at a time and usually only for 20 to 30 seconds

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42
Q

working memory

A

a more updated dynamic form of our short-term memory, not only stores information but also processes information

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43
Q

long-term memory

A

has an unlimited capacity and can store information for long periods of time

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44
Q

Which areas of the brain work with explicit memory?

A

frontal lobe, hippocampus

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45
Q

What is memory consolidation?

A

a process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories

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46
Q

What areas of the brain work with implicit memory?

A

cerebellum, basil ganglia

47
Q

Explain how an individual’s emotion impacts their memory.

A

our bodies release hormones that promote memory formation or cause flashbulb memories

48
Q

What is an example of a flashbulb memory?

A

you can probably ask what someone was doing on 9/11 and they can probably tell you exactly where they were and what they were doing on that day

49
Q

What is autobiographical memory?

A

involves memories connected to our own lives, generally these are more memorable because of the personal relevance these memories have

50
Q

What does it mean if someone has a highly superior autobiographical memory?

A

they have an extraordinary ability to remember events from their own lives, this is often due to the individuals biological processes

51
Q

What generally happens when the left or right hippocampus is damaged?

A

left - struggling to remember verbal information
right - struggling to remember visual information

52
Q

amnesia

A

involves the temporary or permanent loss of memory

53
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

when a person can no longer form new memories, this type of amnesia almost always involves something happening to the hippocampus

54
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

when a person can no longer retrieve past information, this could happen because of a blow to a person’s head

55
Q

source amnesia

A

when a person can remember the information but cannot recall where or how they learned it

56
Q

infantile amnesia

A

when an adult can not remember personal experiences from the early years of life

57
Q

What is Alzheimer’s disease?

A

a neurodegenerative disorder that impairs memory and cognitive functions of an individual

58
Q

What is the difference between recall and recognition?

A

recall - when we retrieve information without any cues or hints
recognition - when we use retrieval cues to help access the information

59
Q

context-dependent memory

A

when retrieval is improved when you’re in the same environment as when you first learned the information

60
Q

mood-congruent memory

A

when you’re more likely to recall memories that match your current mood

61
Q

state-dependent memory

A

when memory retrieval is improved if you’re in the same physical or mental state as when the memory was encoded

62
Q

Explain what retrieval cues are and how they impact the retrieval process.

A

retrieval cues are ways to help remember information. being in the same condition as when you learned the information can help remember and retrieve that information.

63
Q

Provide an example of how you can use retrieval cues.

A

you can learn names of classmates by connecting their name with where they sit in the class, hair color, or shared interests

64
Q

Describe Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve.

A

first, there is a steep decline in memory retention. over time, the rate of forgetting slows down and eventually levels off

65
Q

What happens if there is an error with the encoding process and what happens to the encoding process as a person ages?

A

memory retrieval can be enhanced when the conditions during recall match the conditions present during the encoding of the memory

66
Q

What is the tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon?

A

when you know something but you can’t quite think of the exact name

67
Q

Describe the difference between proactive and retroactive interference.

A

proactive - when older memories interfere with the recall of new memories
retroactive - when newer memories interfere with the recall of older memories

68
Q

What is the difference between eustress and distress?

A

eustress - stress that is perceived as beneficial, and is often caused by positive life events
distress - stress that is perceived to be detrimental, and is often caused by negative life events

69
Q

ego

A

controls a person’s impulse, deals with external stimuli, the overseer of the superego and the id

70
Q

superego

A

located in a person’s preconscious, represents a person’s ideals, judgments, and individuals moral components of their personality

71
Q

id

A

located in a person’s unconscious, strives to satisfy a person’s most basic drive, focus is solely on pleasure

72
Q

Explain how the ego works with the superego and id.

A

the ego’s job is to work with the superego and id, balances the id’s desire for instant gratification and the super ego’s moral decisions

73
Q

Explain what defense mechanisms are and what Freud believed they are used for.

A

these mechanisms allow the go to protect itself and reduce anxiety, generally theses mechanisms focus on distorting reality and happen unconsciously, the most basic mechanism is repression of memories

74
Q

What is constructive memory?

A

when we remember information, the brain combines actual stored information with additional elements such as assumptions, expectations, and even new information

75
Q

Define reconsolidated.

A

the process of altering memories that have been recalled before they are stored again

76
Q

How can the misinformation effect impact a person’s memory?

A

if an individual does alter a memory with misleading or false information it can distort the memory

77
Q

sensory memory

A

the immediate, initial recording of sensory information in the memory system

78
Q

short-term memory

A

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the information is stored or forgotten

79
Q

iconic memory

A

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second

80
Q

echoic memory

A

momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled with 3 or 4 seconds

81
Q

priming

A

the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

82
Q

framing

A

the way information is presented or “framed” to someone, which can significantly influence their perception and decision-making about that information, even if the underlying facts remain the same

83
Q

mood-congruent memory

A

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current good or bad mood

84
Q

state-dependent memory

A

the phenomenon where information is more easily retrieved when a person is in the same physiological or psychological state as they were when they originally encoded the information

85
Q

context effects on memory

A

how the context in which something is experienced can impact perception and recall of the event or information

86
Q

chunking

A

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

87
Q

method of loci

A

a mnemonic technique where a person mentally associates information they need to remember with specific location is a familiar place, like a journey through their house, to enhance recall by visualizing each piece of information at a particular “locus” or location along the route

88
Q

peg-word method

A

a mnemonic device where you associate new information with a pre-memorized list of easily remembered words that are linked to numbers or sequence, allowing you to recall information in a specific order by mentally visualizing the associations between the peg words and the items you need to remember

89
Q

next-in-line effect

A

the cognitive bias where a person has a poor memory of information presented immediately before their turn to speak or perform

90
Q

serial-position effect

A

our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list

91
Q

recall

A

the act of retrieving information from memory without any specific cues

92
Q

recognition

A

a type of memory retrieval in which one must identify present information as having been previously presented

93
Q

true memory

A

an accurate recollection of a past event

94
Q

false memory

A

a distorted or fabricated recollection of an event that did not actually happen

95
Q

misinformation effect

A

the phenomenon where a person’s memory of an event becomes distorted or inaccurate due to expose to misleading information after the event has occurred

96
Q

source amnesia

A

the inability to recall the origin or source of a memory

97
Q

interference

A

a memory phenomenon where the retrieval of one memory is disrupted by the presence of similar, competing memories

98
Q

amnesia

A

a significant loss of memory, where a person is unable to recall past events or experiences, often caused by a traumatic brain injury

99
Q

proactive interference

A

the phenomenon where previously learned information hinders the ability to learn or recall new information

100
Q

retroactive interference

A

the phenomenon where newly learned information disrupts the recall of previously learned information

101
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

the inability to recall memories or events that occurred before a traumatic event or onset of a medical condition

102
Q

anterograde amnesia

A

a condition where a person is unable to form new memories after a traumatic event

103
Q

heuristic

A

a mental shortcut that people use to make quick decisions or judgments, often based on prior experiences

104
Q

algorithm

A

a well-defined, step-by-step procedure or set of rules that guarantees a correct solution to a problem

105
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

a mental shortcut where people categorize or judge something based on how closely it resembles a typical example or stereotype they already have in mind, often leading to quick decision but potentially inaccurate judgments due to reliance on preconceived notions or prototypes

106
Q

availability heuristic

A

a mental shortcut where people judge the likelihood of an event based on how easily examples of that event come to mind

107
Q

schema

A

a cognitive framework or mental structure that helps organize and interpret information based on past experiences

108
Q

prototype

A

the best or most typical example of a category, acting as a mental representation that helps individuals quickly categorize new information by comparing it to this ideal model within that category

109
Q

concept

A

a fundamental idea or mental representation of a psychological phenomenon, which helps explain human behavior and mental processes, encompassing abstract thoughts and theories studied within the field of psychology

110
Q

mental set

A

the tendency to solve a problem using the same strategy that worked in the past, even when a different approach might be more effective, essentially causing an individual to become fixated on familiar solutions and overlooking alternative options

111
Q

functional fixedness

A

a cognitive bias where someone is unable to think of a new use for an object beyond its typical or traditional function

112
Q

confirmation bias

A

the tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms one’s preexisting beliefs or hypotheses

113
Q

belief bias

A

the tendency to judge the strength of an argument based on whether the conclusion aligns with one’s existing beliefs, rather than evaluating the logical validity of the argument itself

114
Q

belief perseverance

A

the tendency for individuals to continue holding onto a belief even when presented with evidence that contradicts it, essentially clinging to their initial idea despite new information disproving it

ap psychology (5 decks)

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