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Psychology 1 > Cognition > Flashcards

Cognition Flashcards

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1
Q

cognition

A

the study of mental processes such as reasoning, information processing, memory, and language

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2
Q

memory

A

what you use to record, save, and recover info

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3
Q

which brain scan is good for looking at memory?

A

fMRI

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4
Q

recognition vs. recall

A

harder to draw a penny from memory (recall) than choosing from diff pics it could be (recognition)-multiple choice easier than short answer

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5
Q

Where are memories stored?

A

we don’t know for sure-complicated memories are stored in diff places-memory broken up into pieces and stored in diff areas based on what sense they are-occipital lobe, somatosensory cortex, etc.

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6
Q

Where are memories processed?

A

hippocampus (process everyday memories), amygdala (emotional memories), cerebellum
(balance and coordination-muscle memory processed here-learn dance, how to play a sport), neural networks (in reticular formation-a whole series of neurons connected-when you practice something, the more you study/commit something to memory/repeat the activity, the more the neurons connect, know it better)

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7
Q

What are the important neurotransmitters in processing memories?

A

serotonin, acetylcholine (AcH-low levels in ppl w Alzheimer’s)

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8
Q

Models of Memory

A

theories to explain memory-1. Information Processing Model, 2. Atkinson-Shiffrin Model, 3. Levels of Processing/Dept of Processing Model

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9
Q

models of memory-information processing model

A

proposed in 1960s-based on the idea of the computer….memory= like a comp…3 steps
Step 1: encode, put memories in–>Step 2: put in file cabinet in head/storage–>Step 3: retrieval/use info on test, remember it

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10
Q

models of memory-atkinson-shiffrin model

A

proposed after the info processing model, in 1960s, then modified in 90s-3 parts to memory: sensory memory, working/short term memory, long term memory

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11
Q

atkinson-shiffrin model of memory: sensory memory

A
  • everything that happens, all senses process-sight and hearing get the most info
  • some pieces of info pass on, most discarded after a few seconds cuz not important
  • iconic memory: vision
  • echoic memory: hearing
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12
Q

atkinson-shiffrin model of memory: working/short term memory (WM or STM)

A
  • what are you working on now? in your brain, what’s there
  • list random things at someone, make them list them back at you
  • Miller said short term memory can hold 7 plus/minus 2 items (items can each be a group of things or just a thing), but unless you keep working on it, will disappear after a few minutes
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13
Q

atkinson-shiffrin model of memory: long term memory (LTM)

A
  • Ebbinghaus-good German who measured things-interested in memory-tested how long it took him and others to forget nonsense phrases
  • his biggest contribution: long term memory seems to have an unlimited capacity-goes on for long period of time, some people can remember what they did 40 years ago
  • 2 parts: declarative (explicit) and procedural (implicit)
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14
Q

models of memory-Levels of Processing/Dept of Processing Model

A
  • focuses on encoding-how good your memory retrieval is is based on how good your encoding of it is/how much effort you put into the encoding
  • 2 parts: shallow processing (don’t put a lot of effort in, things don’t stay in your head for very long) and deep processing (make more connections, make into song, study harder-put more effort in-remember better and longer)
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15
Q

iconic memory

A

vision (memory)

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16
Q

echoic memory

A

hearing (memory)

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17
Q

declarative (explicit) memory

A
  • processed in hippocampus, things you know that you could state, “I know ___”, likely consciously put into memory
  • 2 parts: semantic memory (general facts) and episodic memory (own personal memories)
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18
Q

procedural (implicit) memory

A

“I know how to…” (ride bike, dance), muscle memory-better to let body take over, automatic after learn it, don’t do step by step thinking about each one

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19
Q

encoding info

A
  • ways we process info so that we can remember it-for both working memory and long-term memory, visual, auditory, or semantic info is saved
  • how we encode info determines how well we will be able to recall it (encoding specificity)
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20
Q

LTM seems to mostly store info…

A

semantically (by words) but also stores info visually

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21
Q

encoding specificity

A

when the retrieval cue is very specific to the encoding

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22
Q

important strategies for encoding info

A

rehearsal, chunking, context, mnemonics, distributed learning, positive transfer

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23
Q

important strategies for encoding info-rehearsal

A
  • repeating info over and over again
  • sometimes keeps info in STM only long enough to be briefly useful, but sometimes works to transfer info into LTM
  • 2 types: maintenance rehearsal (simple repetition) and elaborative rehearsal (adding some organization to the info so it can be efficiently stored and then retrieved from LTM)
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24
Q

maintenance rehearsal

A

simple repetition

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25
Q

elaborative rehearsal

A

adding some organization to the info so it can be efficiently stored and then retrieved from LTM

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26
Q

important strategies for encoding info-chunking

A
  • can store approx 7 items in STM
  • items, not single digits, so group things into meaningful units to increase memory
  • pi and number squares guy from vid
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27
Q

important strategies for encoding info-context

A

something as simple as a heading can help enormously in how you encode info (and if you encode it in a sensible way, it’s easier to retrieve)

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28
Q

important strategies for encoding info-mnemonics

A

techniques to improve memorization of facts

there are a lot of mnemonic devices (categories, acronyms, acrostics, interactive images, methods of loci, pegwords)

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29
Q

mnemonic devices-categories

A

put things into useful categories (if you need to memorize your grocery list, do all fruits, then all dairy, then all bathroom stuff, etc.)

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30
Q

mnemonic devices-acronyms

A

first letter of what you need to remember forms a word (DSAT and FPOT from biopsych, Roy G Biv PEMDAS)

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31
Q

mnemonic devices-acrostics

A

make up a phrase where the 1st letter of each word is the first letter of the word you need to know (King Philip came over from Germany singing, Please Excuse My Dear Aunt Sally)

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32
Q

mnemonic devices-interactive images

A
  • good for visual learners-visualize unrelated words with something you know (or together with methods of loci or pegwords)
  • hippocampus for memory=picture hippo remembering something
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33
Q

mnemonic devices-methods of loci

A

-mind palace!!!-determining certain locations in home-first comes couch, table, TV-combine in a way can remember-something you know-have grocery list, associate each item w an item in home in some way
trigger memories of what need to know later by -associating things you need to remember with things you already know
-works best w list always in same order each time you study-list of presidents, periodic table

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34
Q

mnemonic devices-pegwords

A

same as methods of loci really (needs to be a specific ordered list), but instead of furniture and stuff like that, use a common list (nursery rhyme idea is most popular) and visualize the new item somehow associated with it

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35
Q

important strategies for encoding info-distributed learning

A
  • cutting up work into small pieces-start early on studying, 1 part per day, not all night b4
  • opposite: massed learning (cramming)-when try to shove everything into head at last minute, doesn’t work so well-maintenance rehearsal-opp of elaborative rehearsal
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36
Q

important strategies for encoding info-positive transfer

A
  • scaffolding-you have a little bit of info but not all take the info you already know/skill you can do and build on it-easier to start from somewhere than from scratch-learn basic stuff then move up
  • negative transfer=opp
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37
Q

negative transfer

A

sometimes info you have gets in the way of other info-harder to learn to snowboard if a big skiier than if don’t ski or snowboard-what works for one thing won’t work for another if too diff

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38
Q

explicit memory

A

(declarative)-consciously put into memory and consciously retrieve

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39
Q

implicit memory

A

(procedural)-unconscious, don’t realize learning it/not trying to learn it, can’t always explain how to do learned action, may not even know knowledge is there-Freud says has to do w sex and aggression, not aware of knowledge even if asked but still impacts your behavior

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40
Q

explicit vs implicit memory-Alheimer’s exp

A

did tests on ppl w early stages alzheimer’s-flash Xs, a word flashed long enough to read, 5 sec delay they couldn’t remember word-in some cases got “ca___” 5s after “camel” and could remember “camel” and didn’t guess “candy” or another word that fit-so implicit memory still working some

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41
Q

flashbulb memory

A

some memories that are so vivid you can picture them perfectly in your head-tend to be traumatic memories-may not be true/what actually happened exactly, even if seems like it-people are very confident in the truth of these memories-remember places a bit wrong based on more recent or just other memories-say something happened (heard about boston bombing) at starbucks in sharon junior year, this is wrong cuz starbucks already gone but remember it being starbucks not french memories cuz maybe spent a lot of time at starbucks earlier in your life so remember it being there-memories vivid but not necessarily true

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42
Q

eidetic (a.k.a. photgraphic) memory

A
  • can remember everything all the time-whether relevant or irrelevant
  • very rare-those who have it don’t like having it
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43
Q

state dependent memory

A
  • has to do w brain’s state-memory does better if in same state as you were when thing you remember happened-drunk and put keys away, can’t remember where when sober, find them when drunk
  • also includes mood congruent memory
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44
Q

mood congruent memory

A

same as state dependent memory but based on mood-if happy may remember happy memories-1 happy memory triggers cascade of other happy memories-also works other way, w/ depression

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45
Q

context-dependent memory

A

when you’re in same place memory happened, will remember it better-remember memories from elementary school better if there, visiting Cottage

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46
Q

prospective memory

A

remembering to do things int he future-plan ahead, remember Thanksgiving next week, remember stuff is coming up

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47
Q

memory retrieval

A
  • recognition and recall

- schemas–>brain tries to fill in the blanks using stereotypes when forget parts of a story/event

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48
Q

memory retrieval-series and parallel processing

A

-how do we go through our working memory? do we go through them serially (sequentially-1 at a time-remember in order-most ppl do this-flash list of 10 states for 30s, then must remember them) or parallely (simultaneously-see as big group in mind, all at once-works better w pictures)

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49
Q

2 options for sequential/series processing

A

1) self terminating search: as soon as you find right answer, you stop
2) exhaustive search: must read all exhaust all options, good for multiple choice or short list w better alternative option-bad when lots of choices, like long menu, takes too much time-better to just choose first one you like sometimes

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50
Q

serial position effect

A
  • interested in how well you remember a word in a list of words-easier to remember words at beginning and end, harder to remember stuff in middle-first and last day of school, 1st and last vocab word to memorize on list-easier to remember
  • recency effect and primary effect
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51
Q

recency effect

A

remember the stuff at the end (most recent) the best

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52
Q

primary effect

A

remember the stuff at the beginning the best

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53
Q

tip of the tongue phenomenon

A

can almost retrieve the memory, a bunch of clues, some little pieces, but can’t quite get it-usually if stop working on it will have an insight later and suddenly remember

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54
Q

the 7 sins of memory

A

-Schater looked at diff ways your memory fails-not surprising, usually a strategy works but sometimes doesn’t
-transience, absentminded-ness, blocking, (just can’t retrieve a memory)
misattribution, suggestability, hindsight bias, (memory distortance)
persistence

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55
Q

the 7 sins of memory: transience

A

impermanence-unused info goes away

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56
Q

the 7 sins of memory: absent-mindedness

A
  • temporarily lose track of one thing cuz something more important gets in the way-lost phone cuz concentrating on getting to school on time to pick up kid-usually good-but sometimes things that are important (even if other thing more important) get forgotten, like phone, so bad then
  • gets worse if running late, tired, stressed
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57
Q

the 7 sins of memory: blocking

A
  • some info blocks other info-sometimes info blocks other info-sometimes useful, old info not necessarily needed anymore, fine if blocked-but can be bad
  • proactive and retroactive interference
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58
Q

proactive interference

A

old info gets in the way of new info-teacher calls you by older sibling’s name-info you learned in HS gets in way of stuff you’re learning in college-French in HS, hard to learn Italian in college cuz use French words by accident

59
Q

retroactive interference

A

opposite of proactive interference-new info blocks out old info-usually helpful-login for college computer account, learn it, forget HS comp password cuz don’t need it-sometimes bad (for a teacher) cuz learn one class’ names, then new class comes in and try to learn their names and forget other class’ names

60
Q

the 7 sins of memory: misattribution

A
  • over time your memory gets confused, associate event w wrong person/place in memory but still get gist of story
  • conflation and constrictive memory (confabulation)
61
Q

conflation

A

part of misattribution-take info from diff events and turn into 1 story

62
Q

constructive memory (aka confabulation)

A

part of misattribution-your memory gets constructed by real events and filling in the blanks using scheme/prior knowledge/a general habit-memory is part true, part distorted from your brain changing it/filling in the blanks-bad if must help solve crime, may remember black man w weapon when really holding his phone cuz of schemas

63
Q

the 7 sins of memory: suggestibility

A

Elizabeth Loftus-your memory might be altered based on what other people tell you/suggest-usually innocent-someone tells you embarassing story from when you were 3 you don’t remember, told every year so eventually have “memory” of it, if someone asks if you remember, say yes-Elizabeth did test w students who has younger silbings, tell them story that didn’t happen-ask them later if they remember, they say yes even if didn’t happen-bad in court, of lawyer suggests things w Qs-“what hand did the man have the gun in” instead of “did the man have a gun”-Loftus worried about this and other things w eyewitness accounts in court
-hounds of baskerville-had this w drug

64
Q

Suggestibility-Loftus-problems w eyewitness accounts

A

eyewitness recall memory, framing the Q, repressed and recovered memories

65
Q

Suggestibiltiy-Loftus-problems w eyewitness accounts: eyewitness recall memory

A

1) can distort the memory w leading Qs-lead witness in direction of answering the way you want
2) also memory not as good of event cuz traumatic event, remember it wrong
3) no one tells you to pay attention before event cuz don’t know it will happen, so not paying complete attention, get details wrong

66
Q

Suggestibiltiy-Loftus-problems w eyewitness accounts: framing the Q

A

like ex in beginning of year w “should we offer sports” vs. “should we pay extra taxes to support sports in school”-yielded diff results cuz Q phrased diff

67
Q

Suggestibiltiy-Loftus-problems w eyewitness accounts: repressed and recovered memories

A
  • w/ traumatic memory (but works w ordinary memories too)-forget it, but something reminds you of it and scared of thing, then something really reminds you of it, triggers memory and remember traumatic event-Clay in OTH, Charlie in Perks
  • sometimes memory not true sometimes similar things happening and framed Qs make you think it really happened but didn’t
68
Q

the 7 sins of memory: hindsight bias

A

“I knew it all along”-your current belief may alter how you remember something in the past-exp that proved it-rate new GF/BF on compassion and how good together, how happy-ppl in love remember rating them really well but didn’t really-if broke up remember rating them badly but didn’t-current belief about the gf/bf affects your memory of the survey

69
Q

the 7 sins of memory: persistence

A

want to get rid of a memory but it persists-sometimes better off forgetting something bad but end up fixating on it-PTSD, happens w depression and mood dependent memory-prolly not best to get rid of some bad memories cuz learn from them but don’t need to learn from it every day, best to sorta forget-therapy for this now, helps

70
Q

forgetting because of disease or brain damage-Alzheimer’s

A

things build up in your brain-kills neurons, they can’t do their job, memory decays, things like motor control do too

71
Q

forgetting because of disease or brain damage-amnesia

A
  • some sort of memory loss, but no other physical functioning problems-often due to an accident-often temporary-but disease can do permanent
  • retrograde and anterograde amnesia
72
Q

retrograde amnesia

A

what we tend to think of as amnesia-forget what happened before accident/disease-fall off bike, don’t remember what happened the hour b4-the more serious the brain damage, the longer the memory loss (maybe the whole day before, or month, or life)-usually over time, your memory starts to come back

73
Q

anterograde amnesa

A

usually result of surgery gone wrong or disease-guy w hippocampus taken out-remembers everything b4 surgery but nothing after-50 First Dates or Momento-can’t process new memories-permanent-rarely result of accident unless serious damage to hippocampus

74
Q

“motivated” forgetting

A
  • might try to forget unpleasant memories intentionally or unintentionally-get rid of bad memories
  • repression and suppression
75
Q

repression

A

unconscious one-Freud says we unconsciously get rid of memories that make us uncomfortable-defense mechanism-but still there, may still impact us

76
Q

suppression

A

conscious-temporary coping strategy-decide to forget about something that’s upsetting you for a while, deal w it later-good cuz what’s upsetting now might not be upsetting anymore in a week, so when deal w it it’s fine-becomes less bad over time (worry about test taken Fri, decide not to worry over weekend, get back Mon and did well)

77
Q

thinking

A

mentally representing info-can manipulate this info, use it, connect it

78
Q

types of thinking

A
  • problem solving-how do i achieve a goal? come up w a strategy-is it a reasonable/valid strategy? (reasoning)
  • inductive reasoning (bottom-up processing-what we do in science now-collect little pieces, over time can come up w a theory) and deductive reasoning (top-down processing-“all martians are green”-meet martian, know it must be green)
  • make a decision (decision-making)
79
Q

thinking-mental images

A

in your head you have a picture of something, not always entirely accurate-takes longer to picture bigger things/longer events-things in mind similar to way outside mind

80
Q

thinking-concepts and categories

A
  • mentally group similar things together in a way that makes sense to you
  • prototype-best example of a category-“prototype pet”=dog
  • categorizing things can help, but sometimes categorize things wrong-misjudge people
  • subordinate category (animal), basic category (dog), subordinate category (boxer)
81
Q

thinking-divergent and convergent thinking

A
  • 2 ways to think about solving a problem, complementary

- divergent-come up w a whole bunch of ideas-see what makes sense, narrow down to one (convergent)

82
Q

thinking-analysis and synthesis

A
  • complementary
  • analysis stage: break things down, look at each step
  • synthesis stage: put everything together
83
Q

steps in problem solving

A

identify problem (note that it exists), define problem and figure out what part of it needs to be solved, explore possible solutions, act on best solution, look at results and evaluate them

84
Q

well-defined problems (well-structured problems)

A
  • problem that can’t be solved with a clear set of steps
  • can be difficult but always have a solution
  • ex: math problems
  • 2 general ways to solve them: algorithms and heuristics
85
Q

solving well-defined problems-algorithms

A
  • a rule or a step by step process that guarantees a solution to the problem
  • ex: balancing your checkbook (the process is to add all deposits to the beginning balance and then subtract all withdrawals-always works)
  • walk up and down every aisle in bookstore and look at all titles
86
Q

solving well-defined problems-heuristics

A
  • a faster way to solve problems b/c you only consider the most likely solutions
  • a “shortcut” or “rule of thumb” that you learn and then reapply (ex: 4x11=44, double the #)
  • means-end analysis
  • solve a problem one step at a time and after each step, evaluate if you’re closer to solving the problem
  • lost driver who can see destination at every intersection-looks at it at each one and decides way to go
  • go to history section-find US History and then look at titles
87
Q

ill-defined problems (ill-structured problems)

A
  • problems that may not have a specific solution
  • you may not even know what the problem is initially-requires hard thinking
  • can be insight problems (Kohler’s chimps)
  • to get the “aha!” answer, you may need to reorganize your thinking or see the problem in a new way
  • Tower of Hanoi, 9 dots problem
88
Q

problems in problem-solving

A
  • there are obstacles to successfully solving tricky problem
  • sometimes you need to restructure the problem b4 you can solve it
  • mental set (fixation and functional fixedness)
89
Q

problems in problem-solving: mental set

A
  • we use a previously successful strategy but it fails
  • sometimes this is helpful b/c we can transfer knowledge, previous experience to solve the problem faster
  • BUT sometimes leads to problems (perceptual set)
  • 2 related problems: fixation and functional fixedness
90
Q

problems in problem-solving: fixation

A
  • the habit of always using the same methods or rules to solve a problem (ex: sticking to one typically useful algorithm or heuristic_
  • failing to think “outside of the box”
  • sometimes ppl make implicit assumptions: they make up rules that don’t exist
  • 9 dots-good ex-most ppl assume you have to keep the lines in the dots
91
Q

problems in problem-solving: functional fixedness

A
  • we are so used to thinking about something in its most typical use that we don’t use it in a diff way to solve the problem
  • ex: shoe is to wear, not use as hammer
  • Duncker’s candle
  • MCG suggesting Davis use earrings for his tux shirt studs
92
Q

successful problem solving

A

there are also many examples of successful problem solving

  • just like there are multiple reasons for problem solving failures, there are many reasons people can solve complicated problems
  • 5 strategies: transfer, incubation, metacognition, expertise, creativity
93
Q

successful problem solving-transfer

A
  • we’ve done this b4

- making good analogies

94
Q

successful problem solving-incubation

A
  • stop working on the problem for a while and do something else
  • also psychologists can’t yet explain why this works, it seems to
95
Q

successful problem solving-metacognition

A
  • think about our thinking
  • by thinking about how you’re solving a problem, you realize what you don’t know and ask for help
  • this also works in the academic world
  • studies have shown that students and adults who evaluate what they are doing when they’re reading studying, and making adjustments when they realize they are not understanding do better than their peers who seem to lack these metacognitive skills
96
Q

successful problem solving-expertise

A
  • when you get good at something, apparently you organize info differently than you did when you were a novice at the task or problem
  • this superior organization allows for better problem solving
97
Q

successful problem solving-creativity

A
  • developing new ways of thinking about a problem
  • overcoming mental set and functional fixedness
  • creative thinkers tend to be divergent thinkers in the initial stages of problem solving
  • nail problem from class
98
Q

9 important causes of faulty decision making

A

availability heuristic, representativeness heuristic, interference, overconfidence, illusion of control, confirmation bias, belief perserverance, self-serving bias, anchoring

99
Q

availability heuristic

A

a cause of faulty decision making-asked to make a decision, use a shortcut-use the most available info-what seems most likely what’s most vivid in your memory-ex: should you worry more about a terrorist attack or a traffic accident if you travel to the middle east?-traffic accident, but most think terrorist attack, also is driving or flying safer? flying is, but plane crashes more publicized so ppl feel like it’s more dangerous to dly

100
Q

representativeness heuristic

A

a cause of faulty decision making-compare what you see to your schemas, make conclusions and decisions based on the schema that fits best - your shortcut is that your using a stereotype.
ex-working at a store see an elderly person, speak louder
Also, meet man with little glasses and beard, reads poetry for fun, ask if he’s an Ivy League professor or a truck driver. Fits professor stereotype so people guess that but much more truck drivers in world actually a truck driver.
This decision can work and be helpful, or can be wrong and offend people

101
Q

interference

A

a cause of faulty decision making-give so much info (or wrong info) to help make a decision
Overwhelmed-all the info gets in the way of making a good decision. Smaller, unimportant stuff gets in the way of important stuff, then just choose first thing you see or base decision on stupid fact because easier

102
Q

overconfidence

A

a cause of faulty decision making- think youre a good driver and can drive for hours on end. Decide to drive during roadtrip ut fall asleep while driving or get really bored - make decision based on what you think can do, but often overestimate your abilities, can be dangerous

103
Q

illusion of control

A

AKA - Dunning-Kruger Effect
a cause of faulty decision making- people think “I am a good driver” but forget that other people may not be - think you have control but just making judgement based on yourself not others. Don’t really have control - people who gamble sometimes have this - think you’re good at counting cards, don’t account for other’s skills, not in control

104
Q

confirmation bias

A

a cause of faulty decision making - have a certain idea/opinion/bias, only remember or use the info that supports what you already believe
Like one candidate, remember good things about him and forget bad or make excuses. Hear same bad thing about candidate you don’t like, say “I knew he was no good!” - rememeber it, use as an example for how he’s bad, forget other guy did same thing

105
Q

belief perserverance

A

a cause of faulty decision making- stubborn, once you get a belief, stick with it even if see conflicting, opposite, infothat proves you’re wrong

106
Q

self-serving bias

A

a cause of faulty decision making - if did well on a test, you were good - if did badly, test was too hard, teacher didn’t give enough time, someone chewing gum loudly next to you. Take credit for successes, blame outside influences for failures - don’t acknowledge your failures, so can’t learn from them, change behavior.

107
Q

anchoring

A

a cause of faulty decision making - if you have a reference point, use that to make decisions - if reference point is good, may make a good decision but if reference point is bad, bad decision.
Ex - If know how much your dad makes (live in an affluent community like Sharon, figure good salary, so don’t accept a good job because think salary is too low cuz your reference point is your dad’s salary - bad decision

108
Q

Language - Psycholinguistics

A

studying language from a psychological viewpoint

109
Q

Language

A

Spoken, written, signed ways to communicate
Allows us to talk about desires, something concrete, present, past and future
Language is symbolic - want to talk about a man, don’t draw (man figure) - write “man” - come up with symbols that have nothing to do with actual thing, but all know what it means (all people who speak english).
Generative - can generate, produce new ideas

110
Q

Language - Nonhuman Language

A

They communicate, but don’t have language - can’t grasp grammar - subject and verb
Chimps have come close - can learn signs and symbols

111
Q

Structure of language

A

Phoneme, morpheme, syntax, semantics, grammar (descriptive and prescriptive grammar)

112
Q

Structure of language - Phoneme

A

the smallest unit of sound - sometimes letter - sometimes more than one letter: “th” - about 100 phonemes if include all the different languages in the world
English uses 40
Babies until 6 months old can distinguish between all the world’s phonemes, but soon get better ones from hearing and lose ability to say ones don’t hear

113
Q

Structure of language - morphene

A

the smallest unit of meaning
“jump” - one morphene
“jumped” - adds another, so 2 morphenes
root words, suffixes and prefexes that add some kind of meaning, each is a morphene- Ex. pre-test, post-test (can have a hyphen)

114
Q

Structure of language - syntax

A

word order - “blue folder” vs. “folder blue” - in french.

In english, prefer adjective first, romance languages, prefer adjective after noun. German likes verb at end

115
Q

Structure of language - semantics

A

word meaning
sentences that make sense with tenses and word order, but make no sense logically - “odorless green ideas sleep furiously” - also deals with passive and active voice

116
Q

Structure of language - grammar

A

When combine syntax and semantics you get grammar.

Prescriptive grammar and descriptive grammar

117
Q

Grammar - Prescriptive grammar

A

what you’re supposed to do/write/say. Standard english for us - what the rulebook says we should write

118
Q

Grammar - Descriptive grammar

A

how a language is actually used by a group of its speakers - different rules for different groups of speakers - slang may fit into it but not just that
Best ex: AAYE(=Af. Amer. Vernacular English) - use “yous” as plural

119
Q

Biological components of Language

A

Left hemisphere process langauge
Need right hemisphere to process things with double meanings and stuff
Broca’s area (language productions) and Wernicke’s area (Language understanding) - both areas in brain responsible for language
Brain = plastic (brain plasticity), adaptable, when it comes to language relearn to process in hemisphere if left taken out

120
Q

Language and Acquisition

A

Goes through stages - similar stages regardless of your language
babies learn to talk about hte same time no matter what langauge
Stages:prenatal development, cooing, babbling, I-word (AKA holophrastic), telegraphic (AKA 2-3 word), over-regularization.

121
Q

Language and acquisition - prenatal development

A

7 1/2-8 months pregnant, fetus can hear mom - babies, within hours of birth, will prefer mother’s voice to all other voices cuz know it

122
Q

Language and acquisition - cooing

A

starting at a couple of months old (2-3), babies will make small vocalizations, called cooing

123
Q

language and acquisition - babbling

A

start at ~6 months for normal babies (deaf babies start to use hands a lot at 6 months)
then - babbling= the real use of language, relying on feedback
by 1 year will only use own language’s phonemes, start to learn language, think they are speaking - wait for you to respond

124
Q

language and acquisition - I-word (holophrastic) speech

A

will start using one word to express a whole sentence of meaning - carries a decent amount of info but not all, can be confusing
first time a person will be able to understand a baby
start to learn a lot of simple vocab
2 yrs know a decent amount of words

125
Q

language and acquisition - telegraphic (2-3 word) speech

A

nouns and verbs (ex. “want juice” “mama up”)
tell you what they want, see
age 2, 2.5
different based on gender, siblings
if none by age 3 - see doc
until age 4 - job is to get better, learn more words, start to use pronouns
speak slowly but do not need to use baby talk
learn words you say - if use big words, they will learn big words

126
Q

language and acquisition - over-regularization

A

feels like step back, but not
learned to form past tense, but use “-ed” for everything
good thing - learned a rule and are using it
after a while, learn exceptions

127
Q

critical/sensitive period

A

any developmental window/time period where an animal can learn a certain skill or behavior
for language - rather long (birth to puberty)
important to learn first language before puberty
for 2nd language - just a sensitive period - can still learn, just more difficult

128
Q

critical/sensitive period - wild children

A

kids who are found on their own living in the wild
most famous case: Victor
french, early 1800s
showed up at age 12
never really got past learning vocab (no syntax, grammar)
kids in 1970s who lived wit wolves - ate raw meat, died quickly, little research, no language skills

129
Q

critical/senstive period - isolated children

A

not exposed to language
abused by family
Isabel: rescued around age 6, graduated HS, language caught up because found before puberty

130
Q

critical/sensitive period - bilingual children

A

kids raised with 2 languages
have more trouble in the beginning, later helps - bypass kids in all skills
proper accent for both languages

131
Q

critical/sensitive period - deaf children

A

kids who learn sign language as kids are much more fluent in it than those who learn as adults

132
Q

theories to explain language acquisition

A

nature vs. nurture argument - hardwired for language or do we learn through experiences?

133
Q

theories to explain language acquisition - nativist theories

A

“pre-wired” for language
Chomsky (MIT, since 1960s) - language acquisition device (LAD) in head - not actual structure, but system, that allows you to acquire language if normal
works with universal grammar
languages has similarities - LAD and universal grammar in head to help learn native language no matter what it is

134
Q

theories to explain language acquisition - learning theories

A

nurture/behavioral theories: we learn to use language though operant conditioning (kids learn to talk because reward them when we get excited/praise them) and observational learning (learn that others get what they want when they use language so use it too)
strong correlation between child’s vocab and primary caregiver’s vocab
BUT kids make up sentences/words they’ve never heard before, so nature too

135
Q

theories to explain language acquisition - cognitive theories

A

combine nativist ideas and learning theories - need nature and nurture
cognitive = thinking - there is a link between memory and language - cycle - the more language you’ve acquired, the better your memory is, and the better memory, the more words you can acquire

136
Q

language and thought

A

Freud looked at link between them
Freudian slips - the idea that sometimes what you’re thinking mistakenly comes out in your language - “nice to beat you” instead of “nice to meet you” said accidentally to the captain of an opposing team when you think you will beat them.
Linguistic Relativity Theory, Surface vs. Deep Structure, Bilinguals

137
Q

Language and Thought - Linguistic Relativity Theory

A

Whorf proposed it, but wrong about some of it. Whorf used data from anthropologists who’d been visiting northern US and Canada - had lots of words about/for snow.
Language influences thought - in some cases, very true - propaganda advertising - his idea was right, but based it on misinformation. His evidence supported the opposite, that thinking influences language - jargon, specialized language for whatever profession you’re in. See and think snow a lot, so use many words for it and different kinds of words

138
Q

Language and thought - Surface vs. Deep structure

A

another Chomsky idea - he said every sentence has one surface structure - manifest content of sentence - deep structure is actual meaning - where people have trouble with the language, like with little kids, Amedlia Bedelia - where thinking comes in, sentence not always literal

139
Q

Language and thought - Bilingual

A

people who learn 2 languages siultaneously as kids (true bilingual), on average hare better problem solvers

140
Q

Reading - learning to read

A

Alphabetic system and normal reading

141
Q

Learning to read - alphabetic system

A

English, so are romantic languages, russian and korean
Learn a set of letters, correspond with a set of phonemes, then learn decoding - sound out the words
Phonemic Awareness

142
Q

Learning to read-alphabetic system - phonemic awareness

A

ability to understand what letters make what sound - for most kids, learn quickly, some kids have trouble with it, need specialized reading programs - rhyming games and books help

143
Q

Learning to read - normal reading

A

once you learn how to read, reading becomes an automatic process, read things even you don’t want to - billboards

Psychology 1 (8 decks)

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