Cog Psy Exam #3 (3/15/24) Flashcards

Question

spatial knowledge: prototype

Answer 1

- the most typical and characteristic features - 1 good example - effects - statements about prototypes are verified rapidly - higher prototypciality means faster identification - ex. robin vs penguin bird - named first in free recall cons - typicality and context

Answer 2

- multiple examples - objects more similar to known exemplars will be categorized faster - instead of one best example, its several diff ones pros - no def, just instances - objects more like exemplars, judged more quickly cons - how many exemplars do you have, which ones get used when - storage demands

Answer 3

- world knowledge shapes our understanding of concepts - relative importance of features - relations among features -purpose of category

Answer 4

- made up animal with features: called Sorp - ask people what they would call the animal's offspring - change the habitat and see if ppl would still call it the same thing Results: people are slower to say that the offspring is the same bc the environment, using theory bc you are coming up with reasoning to explain why they are no longer called sorp

Answer 5

- property: specific property of a concept/node - Isa: 'is an example of', fits within larger concept/node

Answer 6

- when you say something that relates to other nodes they get activated as well - weakens with length of link - more links = less activation per link - fan effect: not enough -energy to fully activate all the nodes - activation is not always good: noah vs moses story

Answer 7

- had people read a 'story' with interconnected relations - chain of events - ask if the story mentioned a series of words - see how long it takes to answer questions that relate to each other Results: people take longer when the questions don't relate to each other or it was not in the order given in the story

Answer 8

- attached to each node is a set of features assoicated with it - at each level of the hierarchy, there are features of the thing that apply to all of the ones underneath - ex. fish - fins, swims, gills - shark - dangerous, gray

Answer 9

inheritance - each concept inherits property from higher concepts cognitive economy - only have to represent property once in network and exceptions are added when necessary

Answer 10

superordinate: animal - basic: bird, fish - first to be acquired by children - spontaneous naming - faster verification subordinate: canary, shark, salmon

Answer 11

can't explain typical effects - penguins and robins are at the same level in the hierarchy

Answer 12

- a shared symbolic system for communication - a mental 'code' used for memory, thought, categorization etc

Answer 13

- productivity: we can produce whatever we want - arbitrariness: we decide what words mean - learnability: we can learn tons of language

Answer 14

- how languages are structured and how they change over time - language as an object: a thing that gets used, what are the rules, how do they change

Answer 15

- how is language processed and represented in the mind - language as an activity

Answer 16

- language is learned through shaping and experience - learned through observation - reinforce appropriate speech

Answer 17

- language is recursive/generative - infinite number of possible sentences - reinforcement is an insufficient mechanism for learning language

Answer 18

- children produce novel sentences all the time - they do not receive negative feedback - errors are often systematic due to overregulation - I walked = I walked vs I go = I goed - children learn general rules not specific words

Answer 19

- children are born with an innate language capacity: language acquisition device - 'mental organization' facilitates language learning in the environment

Answer 20

- performance: what people actually say - competence: what people actually know

Answer 21

- comprehension: taking sounds and transforming them into ideas - production: taking an idea and making it into sounds - evidence: aphasia where language is disrupted and people have production or comprehension dysfunctions

Answer 22

the sounds of language and the rules for combining them phoneme: smallest unit of speech - total: 46 morpheme: smallest sounds associated with meaning

Answer 23

- special to humans - machines can't do it - speech environment is noisy but we can compensate - figure-ground problem: figure is what you want to listen to and ground is the surrounding noise

Answer 24

there is no one-to-one correspondence btw acoustic input and the speech sounds we perceive - the same letter can sound very different in different words - each phoneme is not articulated individually

Answer 25

speech is continuous and not segmented language is a steady stream, no breaks

Answer 26

shadowing: listen to speech and ask people to repeat it but they ablate the sound - I knew that the *eel was on the orange/axle - people repeat back peel or wheel depending on the last word they are given - most people don't catch the odd sounds Results: context interacts with prior knowledge to help us percieve speech

Answer 27

- ask people to listen to sounds and then look at a person saying a sound and guess what they are saying - sound output: [ba] - speaker's lips/mouth: [ga] - listener's perception [da] Results: articulatory information influences perception

Answer 28

study of linguistic meaning - denotation: the definition - connotation: additional nuances, not associated w the def but critical to understanding - running late for class vs running in the Olympics

Answer 29

- many words are ambiguous and can reflect polysemy = multiple possible meanings

Answer 30

time course - when you hear a sound how long does it take to decide what it is/means

Answer 31

- listened to paragraph stories - lexical decision task: word appears on screen as they are listening and ppl have to decide if word is real or not - timelock the word on the screen - sound to visual probe point 1: "several bugs in the corner of his room" - lexical task: spy/insect vs book/schnerp results: faster for insect and spy than book probe point 2: after the word "corner" - lexical task: faster for insect < spy < book results: ppl select relevant meaning

Answer 32

- arrangement of words and phrases into sentences according to grammar - in English word order is important - also for ambiguous concepts - "visiting relatives canbe a nuisance"

Answer 33

- deep structure: abstract underlying representation of the idea of the sentence - surface structure: actual realization of the sentence - 1 surface structure, 2 deep structure - relatives coming to visit you vs you having to visit relatives

Answer 34

- grouping a sentence into grammatical frames to determine meaning - immediacy: parsing occurs as each word is encountered - as you read, you are slotting these things in your mind - online: in the moment

Answer 35

boggle: when you don't completely understand the grammar of the sentence and have to go back garden path sentences: don't understand the grammatical structure so you have to go back and reread

Answer 36

- claim: parsing is based on grammar not meaning - one alternative meaning is considered at a time - very fast process - assume simplest structure based on input

Answer 37

- syntax and semantics work together - need semantics to understand the sentences

Answer 38

- speech is typically produced for a reason, to 'perform' some act - direct speech act: "open the window" - indirect speech act: "can you open the window? or "it sure is hot in here" - people speak in diff ways depending on who they are speaking with

Answer 39

- assume that speakers are always cooperative - be relevant, truthful, conscise, clear - when ppl violate it we try to understand why - hold even with violation of maxims - even when someone violates the maxims you are still interpreting why they are doing it (rec letter example)

Answer 40

tone of the way people say things - flat affect: when someone speaks in monotone

Answer 41

- eye tracking during reading - fixation time increases for difficult words - pupillometic changes: pupils dilate for confusing words - saccades (eye movements) decrease when something is more confusing

Answer 42

strong version: linguistic determinism: the language you speak determines the way you think weak version - linguistic relativity: the language you speak can influence how you think

Answer 43

- any goal-directed activity is a form of problem-solving - includes planning and commonsense reasoning

Answer 44

- observation = puzzle room or escape room - introspection = having people talk out loud as they are solving the problem - product and process considerations

Answer 45

- put the chimp in a cage and would set up problems for it to solve and observe - ex. boxes around the cage with a banana hanging from the top of the cage - sultan would throw the boxes until one accidentally landed on the other and then he would realize that he could stake them to get the banana

Answer 46

- moment where you figured something out - the point at which the relationships between elements in a problem facilitate the development of a solution

Answer 47

- speed and accuracy - think-aloud/talk-aloud protocols valid measures - how to account for background knowledge - evaluating or controlling the setting or context of the problem

Answer 48

- problem space: all the possible steps and possibilities for a problem - goal state: end goal - initial state: beginning of the problem - intermediate steps: subgoals btw beginning and end - operators: tools and methods to reduce current and goal state - production systems: rules for solving problems

Answer 49

initial state with subsequent subgoals until the end state has been achieved

Answer 50

- problem space: wants banana, needs to reach banana - goal state: eat banana - initial state: sees banana out of reach - intermediate steps: staking crates, sticks, jumping - operators: stick, boxes, movement, cage - production system: physical limitations and affordance of the environment

Answer 51

- rule of thump you apply bc its easy and usually gives you the right answer - common sense - fast, easy - not always the correct solution

Answer 52

- using data to make an assessment - systematic - slow, laborious, - guaranteed solution

Answer 53

- every possibility, usually for small problem spaces - exhaustive, systematic search through the problem space advantage: easy to apply disadvantage: combinatorial explosion - most problems are too big - number of states in problem space increases dramatically with some increases in the attributes of the problem

Answer 54

- to solve problem, you try to reduce the differences btw your current state and the goal state disadvantage: hill climbing - by trying to reduce the diff but not actually getting any closer to the solution - can move towards subgoal that actually puts you further away from the intended goal state

Answer 55

- compare current state with goal state and choose subgoals to reduce diff disadvantage: doesn't work if subgoals cannot be indentified

Answer 56

- thinking about the goal state and moving backward

Answer 57

- structural similarity btw situations or events - problem spaces that relate to each other

Answer 58

- failure to understand the problem - failure to see connections - hill climbing - distraction by irrelevant info

Answer 59

- expectations about how to use a given object - experience can hinder insight - requires 'cognitive restructuring" - Bunker candle problem

Answer 60

- expectations about how to solve a particular problem - water jug problem

Answer 61

- finding similarities and links to an earlier problem - the tumor problem (Gick and Holyoak) - need someone to connect problems for you in order to solve them

Answer 62

reasoning - drawing conclusions based on principles and/or evidence judgment/decision making - evaluating and selecting among alternatives

Answer 63

how people should reason getting many opinions/evidence/info

Answer 64

what people actually do

Answer 65

- logic = set of rules you apply to study the world

Answer 66

- formal procedure that ensures accuracy if rules of logic are followed (like math proofs) - validity in syllogistic reasoning is determined by form, not content

Answer 67

- if syllogism's conclusion is true or agrees with a person's belief, then the syllogism is likely to be judged as valid ex. "republicans have larger brains" - "Ash is republican" - "Ash has a larger brain" - people who are not republicans tend to say that it's not believable - what people want or expect or culturally believe should be true intrudes upon their reasoning

Answer 68

- 4 cards: each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other Cards: A 2 X 3 - task: what are the fewest cards you could turn over to determine if there is a vowel on one side, there is an even $ on the other? - Flip A first: confirmation bias - Second flip should be 3 because it ensures there is not a vowel on the other side - 2 doesn't matter because not all even number have to have vowels - X doesn't matter because rule doesn't say anything about consonants Results: - only 25% flip 3 - 60% choose 2 - 15 % choose X

Answer 69

- to test a rule it is necessary to find situations that disconfirm the rule

Answer 70

- if a person is drinking beer, then the person must be over 21 - Cards: Abe - beer, Betty - 22, Chuck - coke, Diane - 17 - task: how do you determine whether law is being broken? - flip the one drinking beer and the one who is 17 - context helps, people do well when the task is more real-world oriented

Answer 71

- what leads people to make decisions - A: 50% chance of winning $50 - B: 25% chance of winning $110 - economists would calculate expected value, always choose B because it has higher chances

Answer 72

- imagine its lunchtime, wallet is empty, and you are very hungry - A: 85% chance of winning $8 - B: 25% chance of winning $28 - expected value is higher for B but people choose A because they want to eat - most of us choose a lower expected value, bc subjective utility of the outcome is much higher

Answer 73

- reasoning is influenced by whether a problem is framed in terms of gains or losses - if frame emphasizes gains people are risk-averse - if frame emphasizes losses, people are risk-takers

Answer 74

- calculating subjective probabilities is difficult - people use approximations to simplify problems - these approximations help but can result in errors

Answer 75

- people often choose things that look like what they expect - when flipping a coin people are more likely to choose the pattern that looks more random - people expect some level of randomness but tend to underestimate random sequences

Answer 76

- many people believe a 6 is due if it hasn't been rolled in a while - but each roll is independent of previous rolls - people ignore basic mathematical truths by relying on heuristic reasoning

Answer 77

- the "ease" with which we generate examples from memory influences expectations for events - "ease" is not perfectly correlated with objective frequency - if you can easily remember something you often think its true

Answer 78

- how frequent is "blank" - depends on how you ask the question and on your starting point for evaluating the answer - to make decision we establish anchor to initiate a starting point even if the anchor is not relevant - ex. what percentage of African countries are in the UN - giant wheel in the room and ppl pick the number the wheel was on - if it was on a smaller number they would make smaller guesses