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A Level Summer - Geography > Coastal Environments (CE) > Flashcards

Coastal Environments (CE) Flashcards

1
Q

What is a system?

A

A set of interrelated objects comprising components (stores) and processes (links) that are connected together to form a working unit or unified whole.

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2
Q

What three types of energy may be available tot he coastal landscape system?

A

thermal, kinetic and potential

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3
Q

What kind of systems are coastal landscapes mostly recognised as?

A

Open systems

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4
Q

What is an open system?

A

One where energy AND matter can be transferred from neighbouring systems as an input and as an output.

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5
Q

What is the coastal zone?

A

Interface zone between the land and see.

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6
Q

What four factors do coastal systems witness the interaction of?

A

Marine processes, terrestrial, atmospheric and human.

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7
Q

Input:

A

The transfer of matter and/or energy from a neighbouring system.

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8
Q

Output:

A

The loss or matter and/or energy from a neighbouring system.

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9
Q

Store:

A

Components within a system where energy and/ or matter is stored, which are connected by flows

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10
Q

Flow/transfer:

A

processes that link stores within a system

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11
Q

Throughputs:

A

the internal elements of a system

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12
Q

Closed system:

A

Inputs and outputs of energy across system boundaries but no input/output of matter.

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13
Q

Dynamic equilibrium:

A

When inputs and outputs in a system are balanced

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14
Q

Negative feedback:

A

Where changes are met with responses that redress the imbalance and lead the system back towards its original state.

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15
Q

Positive feedback:

A

Occurs when a change occurs that causes the system to travel further from its original state which in turn causes the change to occur more intensely.

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16
Q

Example of a negative feedback loop:

A
  1. shingle encourages high rates of percolation of breaking waves
  2. swash is stronger than backwash
  3. material is deposited on upper beach steepening the beach gradient.
  4. steep shelving coastline promotes destructive waves
  5. material is combed from upper beach and deposited on lower beach, reducing beach gradient
  6. stable gradient on shingle beach
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17
Q

Example of positive feedback loop:

A
  1. Vegetation colonises intertidal mudflat
  2. increased friction results in slower currents and less deposition.
  3. mudflat builds vertically upwards
  4. mudflat spends less of tidal cycle submerged so a greater number of plants are able to colonise mudflat
  5. more biomass…
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18
Q

what is a sediment cell?

A

a stretch of coastline and its associated nearshore area within which the movement of coarse sediment, sand and shingle is largely self contained.

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19
Q

What is a sediment cell regarded as?

A

A closed system.

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20
Q

How many sediment cells does the uk have?

A

11

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21
Q

How are sediment cells determined?

A

The boundaries are determined by the topography and shape of the coastline. Big physical features (i.e. Land’s End) act as natural barriers that prevent the transfer of sediment to adjacent cells, however it is unlikely that sediment cells will ever be completely closed.

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22
Q

What are the four components of the sediment budget

A

terrestrial (rivers), terrestrial (cliff erosion), offshore and human

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23
Q

What is the sediment budget?

A

the balance of the sediment volume entering and exiting a particular section of coast.

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24
Q

What is the terrestrial (rivers) component of the sediment budget?

A

-major source of coastal sediment
-intermittent delivery
-in some locations 80% of sediment comes from rivers
-fluvial sediment is originally derived from erosion of land by rivers as well as weathering and mass movement.

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25
Q

What is the offshore component of the sediment budget?

A

-constructive waves move sediment onto beach from offshore locations, as do flood tides and offshore currents.
- rising sea level push a ridge of sediment up ahead that becomes beach sediment when sea level stabilises.

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26
Q

What is the terrestrial (cliff erosion) component of the sediment budget?

A
  • cliff erosion increased by sea level rise and storm surges
  • weak geology exposed to high wave energy can contribute to 70% of beach material.
    -rock fall can comprise of large rocks and boulders.
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27
Q

What is the human component of the sediment budget?

A
  • beach nourishment
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28
Q

What are the six factors affecting coastal processes?

A

waves, tides, current, geology, human activity, aeolian factors

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29
Q

What are waves?

A

The transfer of energy through the water, produced by wind exerting a frictional drag on the ocean’s surface. They are not the transfer of water itself.

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30
Q

The higher the wind speed and longer the fetch…

A

The larger the waves and the more energy they possess.

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31
Q

Crest:

A

highest point of a wave

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32
Q

Trough:

A

Lowest point of a wave

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33
Q

Wavelength:

A

average distance between successive crests

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34
Q

wave height:

A

the vertical distance between the wave trough and crest

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35
Q

wave velocity:

A

the speed of a wave

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36
Q

wave steepness:

A

the ratio of wavelength to wave height

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37
Q

wave period:

A

the average time between successive waves

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38
Q

wave frequency:

A

average number of waves per minute

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39
Q

wave power:

A

the square of the wave height multiplied by the wave period

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40
Q

Four swell wave features:

A

long wavelength, gentler gradient, long wave period, formed by distant wind in open ocean

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41
Q

Four storm wave features:

A

steeper, short wavelength, short wave period, generated by local winds

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42
Q

Atlantic waves are …..

A

swell waves

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43
Q

Channel waves are….

A

storm waves

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44
Q

Why do waves break?

A
  1. waves enter shallow water, slowed by friction with seabed
  2. front is slowed earlier than the back meaning the back of the wave catches, shortening the WL and increasing WH
  3. Eventually when water depth is less than 1.3 times WH, wave becomes top heavy, unstable and collapses.
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45
Q

Spilling wave:

A

steep waves breaking onto gently sloping beaches, water spills gently forwards

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46
Q

Plunging wave:

A

moderately sweet waves breaking onto steep beaches, water plunges down vertically creating large arcs

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47
Q

Surging wave:

A

low angle waves breaking onto steep beaches, waves slide forwards but do not actually break

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48
Q

Constructive features:

A

low height, long length, gentle steepness, long period, low frequency of 6-8/minute and long fetch.

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49
Q

Destructive features:

A

high height, short length, steep, short period, high frequency of 12-14/minute, and short fetch

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50
Q

Constructive waves swash and backwash

A

swash > backwash

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51
Q

Destructive waves swash and backwash

A

swash < backwash

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52
Q

What results in wave refraction?

A

irregular shaped coastlines (particularly encouraged by headlands and bays)

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53
Q

When does wave refraction occur?

A

when waves move at different speeds causing the front of the wave to refract.

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54
Q

Explain wave refraction:

A
  1. waves approach coastline at an angle
  2. one side of wave reaches shallow water before the other
  3. the side of wave front in deeper water travels faster, causing entire wave to bend
  4. one side of wavefront is slowed by friction before the other side
  5. overall effect is that wave fronts become increasingly parallel to coast
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55
Q

What happens when waves approach an irregularly shaped coastline?

A

wave refraction occurs around the headland and orthogonals converge. thus wave energy is focused on headland and erosion is concentrated here. In the bays, the orthogonals diverge causing energy to be dissipated, leading to deposition.

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56
Q

Tides:

A

the periodic rise and fall in the level of the sea

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57
Q

what are tides caused by?

A

the gravitational pull of moon and sun

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58
Q

why does the moon exert a stronger influence

A

it is much closer to the earth

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59
Q

how is high tide created?

A

a bulge of water is drawn towards the moon with a compensatory bulge developing on the opposite side of the earth. the areas of ‘lost water’ become areas of low tide

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60
Q

explain spring tide:

A

occurs when the moon, earth and sun are aligned in s straight line and so the pull fo the sun and moon are acting in the same plane and thus are stronger leading to very high and very low tides.

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61
Q

When does spring tide occur?

A

twice a month when there is a new and full moon

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62
Q

What happens during a neap tide?

A

when the su and moon are aligned at a 90 degree angle, so the gravitational pulls are acting in the opposite directions so the high tide bulge is not as big. so high tides are not as high and low tides are not as low.

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63
Q

What is tidal range?

A

the vertical distance between high and low tide

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64
Q

macro tidal:

A

> 4m

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65
Q

Meso tidal:

A

2-4m

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66
Q

Micro tidal:

A

<2m

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67
Q

What are currents:

A

the flow of ocean water

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68
Q

What are rip currents caused by?

A

tidal motion or by waves breaking at right angles to the shore

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69
Q

Explain rip currents:

A

A cellular circulation is generated by differing wave heights parallel to the shore. water from the top of breaking waves with large wave heights travels further up shore and returns through the adjacent area where the lower waves have broken

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70
Q

What are ocean currents created by?

A

the Coriolis force and by convection

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71
Q

Why are ocean currents important?

A

they distribute heat from the equatorial oceans to high latitude oceans, maintaining global atmospheric equilibrium

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72
Q

Warm water currents tend to move form…

A

west to east, bringing warm onshore currents to western facing coastlines

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73
Q

Cold water currents tend to move from…

A

east to west, and move more offshore

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74
Q

What are the huge circulations in ocean currents called?

A

gyres

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75
Q

what ocean does the Gulf Stream occur in?

A

atlantic

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76
Q

Gulf Stream heat and direction:

A

warm SW - NE (Caribbean to NW Europe)

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77
Q

Canaries current location?

A

atlantic

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78
Q

Canaries heat and direction:

A

cold NE-SW

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79
Q

Benguela current location, direction and temperature:

A

atlantic, cold, SW-NE (South Atlantic to west coast of Africa)

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80
Q

Agulhas current location direction and temperature:

A

Indian Ocean, warm, N to S

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81
Q

Differential erosion:

A

The process by which adjacent rock typed of differing levels of resistance are eroded at different rates.

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82
Q

Three components that determine the characteristics of rock:

A

lithology, dip and structure

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83
Q

Lithology:

A

the physical and chemical composition of rocks

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84
Q

Clay composition:

A

weak lithology, little resistance to erosion, weather and mass movement. unconsolidated nature, weak bonds join individual particles.

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85
Q

Basalt composition:

A

Dense, interlocking crystals lead to highly resistant lithology.

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86
Q

Limestone composition:

A

strong physical lithology, tightly bonded particles creating very resistant rock but vulnerable to solution is weak acid.

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87
Q

Structure:

A

Properties of individual rock types such as jointing, bedding and faulting. also relates to permeability of rocks.

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88
Q

Primary permeability:

A

porous rock where water is transmitted through tiny air spaces between particles

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89
Q

Secondary permeability:

A

pervious rock where water is transmitted more rapidly along joints and bedding planes.

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90
Q

concordant:

A

bands run parallel to coastline

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91
Q

discordant:

A

bands run perpendicular to coastline

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92
Q

Horizontally bedded strata:

A

Undercutting wave action leads to rockfall. Cliff retreats inland, parallel to coast.

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93
Q

Seaward dipping strata:

A

Undercutting by wave action removes basal support. Rock layers loosened by weathering slide into sea along bedding planes

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94
Q

Landward dipping strata:

A

rocks loosened by weathering and wave action are difficult to dislodge, the slope profile is lowered by weathering and mass movement.

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95
Q

What are four main human activity interferences?

A

building groynes, planting marram grass, extracting sand from beach and offshore zone, beach nourishment

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96
Q

Explain the building of groynes:

A

traps sediment from longshore drift, creating larger store of material, reducing erosion rates. beach store of sediment may eventually be depleted.

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97
Q

Explain the effect of extracting sand from beach and offshore zone:

A

depletes store of sediments as beach material is a wave energy buffer. Increased erosion rates on cliffs behind beach.

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98
Q

Explain the effects of beach nourishment:

A

represents a new input and the larger the beach the less erosion on terrestrial area behind the beach.

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99
Q

Explain the effect of planting marram grass to stabilise sand dunes:

A

this facilitates deposition by disrupting the aeolian transport of sand and fine material.

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100
Q

abrasion/corrasion:

A

sea’s load is thrown up against rocks by breaking waves, eroding cliff face away

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101
Q

Attrition:

A

particles of load knock into each other causing them to become smaller and smoother.

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102
Q

Hydraulic action:

A

wave breaks against surface of cliff face, causing air and water into cracks, which become pressurised and can release mini explosion when wave retreats, weakening the rock.

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103
Q

Pounding:

A

simply force of the wave on rock

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104
Q

Solution:

A

particular rocks containing soluble minerals are slowly dissolved by sea water

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105
Q

Coastal transportation - solution:

A

minerals that have been dissolved are transported in moving water. load is invisible

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106
Q

Suspension:

A

small particles are carried by currents

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107
Q

saltation:

A

irregular leapfrogging motions in which particle that is too large to be carried continuously is bounced along sea bed.

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108
Q

traction:

A

largest particles pushed along sea bed by force of waves

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109
Q

Marine deposition:

A

laying don of material on the coast by sea, occurs when sea no longer has energy to carry load

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110
Q

where can deposition occur?

A

sheltered areas, at top of swash, during backwash, when rate of sediment accumulation exceeds rate of removal

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111
Q

settling velocity:

A

water speed below which material of a particular size will be deposited

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112
Q

What has a lower settling velocity, large material or small?

A

small

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113
Q

Weathering:

A

Breakdown of rock by elements of the weather in situ.

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114
Q

Erosion:

A

the breakdown and sub sequential removal of rocks by moving agents

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115
Q

Physical weathering:

A

Breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments with stress, as rock breaks down SA increases furthering weathering.

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116
Q

Thermal weathering:

A

rock experiences large changes of temperature over a very short period of time causes layers of rock to break off

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117
Q

salt crystallisation:

A

sea water that evaporates off of rocks leave behind salt that can crystallise and weaken the rock

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118
Q

Freeze thaw weathering:

A

water in liquid form enters cracks in rock and freezes when temperature drops and expands as it does so weakening the rock

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119
Q

Oxidation:

A

some minerals in rocks react with oxygen in air or in water.

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120
Q

Chemical weathering:

A

breakdown of rocks due to change in chemical composition of minerals that make up rock. this occurs faster at higher temperatures. 10 degree increase leads to 2.5x faster rate

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121
Q

What are examples of inputs into the coastal landscape system?

A

kinetic energy from wind and waves, thermal energy form heat of the sun, potential energy from the position of material on the slopes, material from marine deposition, weathering and mass movement.

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122
Q

What are examples of outputs int he coastal landscape system?

A

marine and wind erosion from beaches and rock surfaces, evaporation

123
Q

What are examples of throughputs in the coastal landscape system?

A

Stores such as beach and nearshore sediment accumulations and flows such as the movement of sediment along a beach by longshore drift

124
Q

How do the developments of coastal landscapes and their operation as systems vary?

A

Temporally (over time) and spatially (from place to place).

125
Q

Biological weathering:

A

breakdown of rocks through action of flora and fauna, can be physical or chemical.

126
Q

Atlantic waves are …….. higher than English Channel waves but have …… times more energy

A

eight times

70 times

127
Q

In enclosed seas, such as the mediterranean, tidal ranges are…

A

low, and so wave action is restricted to a narrow area of land

128
Q

In places where the coast is funnelled, such as the Severn Estuary, tidal ranges are…

A

high, up to 14m, therefore exposing more land to wave action

129
Q

Draw a sediment budget:

A

see page 9 of textbook

130
Q

Carbonation:

A

rainwater combines with dissolved CO2 from atmosphere to produce weak carbonic acid which reacts with calcium carbonate in rocks such as limestone to produce calcium carbonate, which is soluble.

131
Q

Solution (weathering):

A

Some rock types are soluble in water. And some are soluble in very acidic water.

132
Q

Hydrolysis:

A

chemical reaction between rock minerals and water. silicates combine with water, producing secondary minerals such as clays.

133
Q

Tree roots:

A

tree roots grow into cracks in rocks and exert an outward pressure as they grow, weakening and breaking down the rock.

134
Q

Organic acids:

A

Organic acids produced decomposition of plant and animal litter cause soil to become more acidic and react with some minerals in a. process called chelation. blue-green algae can have a weathering effect, producing a shiny film of iron and magnesium oxides on rocks. In addition molluscs secrete acids which produce small surface hollows in the rock

135
Q

Mass movement:

A

occurs when forces acting on slope material, exceed the forces trying to keep the material on the slope.

136
Q

Rock fall:

A

on cliffs 40 degrees or more, rocks may become detached from the slope by physical weathering processes. These then fall to the foot of the cliff under gravity. wave material may eventually remove this material.

137
Q

Rotational slump:

A

slides often occur due to undercutting by wave erosion at the base of the cliff which reduces support for materials above. common in weak rocks such as clay which also becomes heavier when wet.

138
Q

Longshore drift occurs when:

A

waves approach the coast at an angle due to the direction of the dominant wind. when the waves have broken, swash carries particles diagonally up the beach. under the influence of gravity the backwash the wave back down the beach. when this movement is repeated there is a net movement of material along the beach.

139
Q

What do fluvial processes refer to?

A

river processes

140
Q

What is the main source of river’s sediment load?

A

Fluvial erosion

141
Q

When does most channel erosion occur?

A

during high flow, high energy events

142
Q

What four ways do rivers transport sediment?

A

traction, solution, saltation, suspension

143
Q

When is there a noticeable reduction in a river’s velocity?

A

As the flowing water enters the relatively static body of sea. as a result there is a major deposition event here

144
Q

What is flocculation?

A

A process by which salt causes the aggregation of minute clay particles into larger masses that are too heavy to remain suspended in the water.

145
Q

What do aeolian processes refer to?

A

Wind

146
Q

What is deflation?

A

The wind’s ability to pick up sand particles and move them

147
Q

At speeds of 40km/h sand grains can be moved by…

A

surface creep and saltation.

148
Q

Erosive forces increase exponentially with increases in….

A

wind velocity

149
Q

In aeolian erosion, and increase in 2m/s in wind speed….

A

results in an eight fold increase in arose capacity

150
Q

Is dry sand or wet sand easier for wind to pick up?

A

Dry sand and wet sand has moisture cohesion between the particles helping them stick together

151
Q

Once particles have been entrained, they can be transported by velocities as low as…

A

20 km/h

152
Q

Saltating grains are typically ….. in diameter

A

0.15-0.25 mm

153
Q

Surface creep grains are typically …. in diameter

A

0.26-2 mm

154
Q

Suspension grains are typically …. in diameter

A

0.05-0.14 mm

155
Q

When will material carried by wind be deposited?

A

When the wind speed falls, usually as a result of surface friction.

156
Q

What happens when destructive waves break repeatedly on relatively steep sloping coastlines….

A

undercutting can occur between the high and low tide levels where it forms a wave cut notch. continued undercutting weekends support for strata above causing it to eventually collapse producing a steep profile and a cliff. cliff debris is left at bottom but is removed by wave action

157
Q

Bays and headlands typically form …… to each other

A

adjacent

158
Q

What is an example of a discordant coastline?

A

The Isle of Purbeck. The East facing coast is discordant, whilst the south facing is concordant.

159
Q

What are geos?

A

narrow, steep sided inlets. even on coasts with resistant geology, there may be lines of weakness such as joints and faults which are eroded more rapidly by wave action.

160
Q

What is an example of a geo?

A

Huntsman’s Leap in Pembrokeshire which is 35 m deep and eroded along a large joint in carboniferous limestone.

161
Q

Sometimes geos initially form as…

A

tunnel like caves, running at right angles to the cliff line which becomes enlarged with erosion, causing the roof to collapse and form a geo.

162
Q

How are blowholes formed?

A

If a part of the roof of a tunnel like cave collapses along the master joint, it may form a vertical shaft that reaches the top.

163
Q

What may occur with blowholes in storm conditions?

A

waves may force spray out of the blowholes as plumes of white aerated water.

164
Q

Crack …

A

cave, arch, stack, stump

165
Q

What are the six main landforms of deposition?

A

Spits, beaches, tombolos, deltas, onshore bars, salt marshes

166
Q

What are the three main sources of beach sediment>

A

cliff erosion (5%), offshore (5%), rivers (90%)

167
Q

Beaches:

A

Landform of deposition that represents an accumulation of material deposited between the lowest tides and highest storm waves.

168
Q

Why does sand allow little percolation during backwash?

A

because its small particle size means that it becomes compact when wet, allowing little percolation during backwash.

169
Q

How and why are runnels formed?

A

Little wave energy is lost by friction and little water volume is lost to percolation, material is carried back down the beach rather than left at the top, resulting in a gentle gradient and the development of ridges and runnels parallel to shore

170
Q

How are storm beaches formed?

A

When storm waves hurl pebbles and cobbles to the back of the back forming a storm beach or storm ridge

171
Q

How are berms formed?

A

Smaller ridges that develop at the position of the mean high tide mark, again resulting from deposition at the top of the swash

172
Q

what are cusps?

A

small semi circular depressions formed by a collection of waves reaching the same point and when swash and backwash have a similar length.

173
Q

Beaches are dynamic and……

A

their profiles change over time as wind strength and hence wave energy changes

174
Q

High energy, destructive waves remove sediment….

A

offshore and create flatter beach profiles. this results in shallower water, more friction and a reduction in wave energy.

175
Q

Low energy constructive waves transfer sediment…..

A

in the opposite direction to destructive, so onshore, producing a steeper profile. this process deeper water, less friction and an increase in wave energy.

176
Q

What are spits?

A

long narrow beaches of sand or shingle that are attached to land at one end and extend across a bay, estuary or indentation in a coastline

177
Q

how are spits formed?

A

by longshore drift occurring in one dominant direction which carries beach material to the end of the beach and then beyond into the open water.

178
Q

what may make a spit more permanent and why?

A

storms as they build up more and larger material which make the feature more substantial

179
Q

Why does the end of a spit become curved?

A

Because of wave refraction around the end of the spit and possible due to the presence of a secondary wind or wave direction

180
Q

Where may spit length be limited and why?

A

Across and estuary due to river current

181
Q

What is a good example of a spit?

A

Orford Ness in East Anglia. here the coastline is east facing so is largely unaffected by Britain’s southwesterly prevailing winds. instead northeasterly winds winds and waves are locally dominant and has resulted in longshore drift from north to south.

182
Q

Where has the spit at Orford Ness formed exactly?

A

across the River Ore estuary but the river current has prevented it reaching land on the other side so instead it has continued to grow parallel to the coastline, diverting the river some 12km south.

183
Q

Where can onshore bars develop?

A

if a spit continues to grow across an indentation such as a cove or bay until it joins onto land again at the other side. this forms a lagoon of brackish water on the landward side.

184
Q

Why is the onshore bar at Slapton Sands in Devon special?

A

Because there is not a significantly dominant direction of longshore drift there and there is no obvious pattern to the distribution of sediment sizes. so it is likely to be produced by onshore movement of sediment during the post glacial sea level rise.

185
Q

What are tombolos?

A

Beaches that connect the mainland to an offshore island.

186
Q

How are tombolos formed?

A

From spits that have continued to grow seawards until they reach and join onto an island

187
Q

What is an example of a 30 km tombolo?

A

the shingle beach at Chesil near Weymouth, Dorset.

188
Q

How is the tombolo at Chesil Beach Devon believed to be formed?

A

The onshore movement of sediments, as it reached its present position some 6000 years ago.

189
Q

Name two features of the Chesil Beach tombolo:

A

At its Eastern end at Portland the ridge of shingle is 13m high composed of flinty pebbles. At the western end near Burton Bradstock the ridge is only 7m high and composed of smaller shingle.

190
Q

Why is it not likely that the Chesil Beach tombolo was formed by longshore drift?

A

If longshore drift had been responsible it would be expected that the sediment further east would be smaller.

191
Q

What are salt marshes?

A

features of a low energy environment such as estuaries and on the landward side of spits. they are vegetated areas of deposited silts and clays.

192
Q

What are salt marsh adapted plants?

A

Eelgrass and spartina can handle salty water and submergence from high tides. they help trap sediment and therefore increase height of salt marsh

193
Q

The higher the marsh becomes…

A

the shorter the period of submergence and the less saline the conditions

194
Q

How is the low marsh characterised?

A

turbid water, salinity and long periods of submergence, low species diversity

195
Q

Salt marshes have a ………. gradient that slopes……..

A

shallow, seawards

196
Q

Why are deposition rates still quite high at the top of salt marshes where there are lower rates of inundation?

A

As at the high water mark, low energy, slack water may be present for 2-3 hours. and the greater density of vegetation cover helps to stabilise sediment.

197
Q

What is the common rate of sediment accumulation in salt marshes?

A

10cm per year

198
Q

What is a key factor required for formation of salt marshes?

A

flocculation. in salt water, clay particles attract each other forming flocs which are too heavy to be carried in river flow.

199
Q

Deltas:

A

large areas of sediment found at the mouths of rivers. they form when river and tidal currents deposit sediments at a faster rate that waves and tides can remove it.

200
Q

Deltas typically form where: (4)

A
  • tidal ranges are low
  • low energy energy environments
  • rivers entering the sea are carrying large sediment loads
  • a broad continental shelf margin exists at the river mouth to provide a platform for sediment accumulation
201
Q

What are the three components of a delta?

A

The upper delta plain, the lower delta plain and the submerged delta plain

202
Q

The upper delta plain:

A

Furthest inland, beyond the reach of tides and composed entirely of river deposits

203
Q

The lower delta plain:

A

in the inter tidal zone regularly submerged and composed of both river and marine deposits

204
Q

The submerged delta plain:

A

Lies below mean low water mark, is composed mainly of marine sediments and represents seaward growth of the delta

205
Q

Deltas are criss crossed by a branching network of…

A

distributaries

206
Q

Levées:

A

ridges of coarse deposits found alongside stream channels and elevated above the floodplain

207
Q

What are the low lying areas between levées called?

A

crevasse splays

208
Q

What are the three types of delta?

A

cuspate, bird’s foot and arcuate

209
Q

Overloaded with sediment, deposition in the channel forms…

A

bars which causes the channel to split into two producing two channels with reduced energy levels and so more deposition and dividing occurs

210
Q

Cuspate delta:

A

a pointed extension to the coastline occurs when sediment accumulates but this is shaped by regular, gentle currents from opposite directions

211
Q

Arcuate delta:

A

sufficient sediment supply is available for delta to grow seawards but wave action is strong enough to smooth and trim its leading edge

212
Q

Bird’s foot delta:

A

distributaries build out from the coast in a branching pattern with river sediment supply exceeding rates of removal by waves

213
Q

What is the case study of a low energy coastal environment?

A

The Nile Delta, Egypt

214
Q

Nile length:

A

6650 km

215
Q

What is the catchment area of the Nile?

A

3 million km squared

216
Q

Mean annual rainfall in river nile catchment?

A

600mm

217
Q

A large proportion of the Nile flow originates in….

A

Ethiopia and its summer monsoon rains

218
Q

The Nile has a relatively…….. discharge of….

A

low, 3000m cubed/second

219
Q

The river Nile carries a …….

A

huge sediment load

220
Q

Suspended sediment load of the Nile:

A

30% clay, 40% silt and 30% fine sand

221
Q

What are the three distinct subunits of the coastal plain in the Nile delta?

A

the sandy zone, frontal plane and foreshore plain

222
Q

Nile: the foreshore plain is characterised by…

A

elongated ridges, salt marshes and lagoons

223
Q

Nile: the sandy zone is characterised by…

A

variety of sand formations such as sheets, dunes and hummocks

224
Q

Nile: the frontal plane is characterised by…

A

south of the foreshore plain, has scattered limestone outcrops and clay deposits

225
Q

Prevailing wind direction in the Nile Delta:

A

for most of year: northwesterly, winds from here are most common in the summer, whilst gentle southwesterly winds are more common in spring and northerly are common in winter

226
Q

What is the tidal range of the Nile delta?

A

Microtidal (just a few cm) due to enclosed nature of Mediterranean Sea

227
Q

what is the geology of the Nile Delta?

A

The soft, unconsolidated sediments of the delta have very weak physical lithology and are therefore more vulnerable to marine erosion processes.

228
Q

What two processes contribute to the sediment of the Nile?

A

Fluvial erosion, especially within wetter areas of the Nile catchment and Weathering processes in the arid regions of the Sahara, where there is no vegetation to anchor fine sediments

229
Q

Where in the Nile are there nearshore underwater sand bars and why?

A

Off the Abu Quir headland and in-between Abu Qir and Port Said. They are typical of tideless seas. They run parallel to shore, reflecting dominant eastward longshore drift and currents

230
Q

Why might the underwater sand bars by the Nile delta have a crescentic shape?

A

Due to rip currents

231
Q

Net LSD in the Nile Delta?

A

Eastwards

232
Q

Why is the Nile Delta a smooth concave Arcuate delta?

A

because the reshaping of deposited material by longshore currents creates a smooth concave arcuate delta, instead of a bird’s foot delta. the reworked sediment forms a series of curved barriers closing off segments to form lagoons that soon fill with brackish water and fine sediment

233
Q

Rapid population growth in Egypt…

A

of 2.5% per year leads to increased water abstraction decreasing sediment supply to delta

234
Q

What is the purpose of the Aswan Dam?

A

Regulates discharge downstream, trapping sediments behind it. Before construction the whole delta was briefly submerged during its annual flood with alluvial deposits reaching depths of 4m

235
Q

Since construction of the Aswan Dam (POS):

A

sediment accretion on the delta has dropped from 120 million tonnes a year to negligible amounts today so there is no longer the annual flooding of the delta.

236
Q

Since the construction of the Aswan Dam (NEG):

A

There has been an imbalance between sediment accretion and erosion rates. So now there are rates of retreat of 148m/year.

237
Q

Nile: Rising Sea Levels in mediterranean…

A

Have contributed to higher erosion rates as deeper water produces larger waves with higher energy levels and the potential to reach further in land.

238
Q

Nile: A 1m rise in sea level would …

A

result in 20% of the delta being submerged

239
Q

Temporal changes in the nile delta:

A
  • marine processes showed seasonal patterns (longshore currents strongest in winter)
  • with no seasonal flood and reduced sediment input we are seeing year on year net erosion
    -sea level change
  • single local events such as a storm
240
Q

What is an example of a high energy coastline?

A

Saltburn to Flanborough Head, Yorkshire

241
Q

How long is the SbFb coastline?

A

60km

242
Q

What sediment cell is the SbFh coastline in?

A

Sediment cell 1, sub cell 1d

243
Q

How are the rocks bedded on the SBFH coastline?

A

horizontally, so cliffs tend to have a vertical profile

244
Q

SBFH net lsd?

A

From North to South. In places it is interrupted by headlands, allowing sand and shingle to accumulate in bays to form beaches such as Filey Bay

245
Q

Describe the Geology of Flamborough Head:

A

-chalk
-strong physical lithology with tightly bonded minerals
-produces vertical cliffs 20-30m high
-overlying stratum of glacial till lowered by mass movement to an angle of 40 degrees

246
Q

How many geos does Flamborough head have?

A

over 50 geos aligned NE with multiple blowholes

247
Q

What has happened to joints and faults on Flamborough Head?

A

They have been exploited by waves, creating caves, arches, stacks and stumps

248
Q

Where is the dominant wave action on the SBFH coastline coming from?

A

From North and North East with a fetch of over 1500km

249
Q

What is the effect of SBFH being a discordant coastline?

A

it has led to the formation of headlands and bays such as Robin Hood’s Bay (relatively weak shales) and Ness Point (resistive sandstone).

250
Q

Why are there few well developed beaches on SBFH?

A

Due to low sediment input (few rivers, little erosion, high wave energy and active LSD). Beaches are only found in sheltered locations such as Filey Bay.

251
Q

SBFH: what do variations in geology account for?

A

differences in coastal scenery including cliff height and profile and the headland bay sequence

252
Q

SBFH: why are there few spits?

A

despite active LSD there are few spits due to high tidal range which reduces deposition and there are few estuaries.

253
Q

What is the only large river at SBFH?

A

River Esk

254
Q

Why does the river Esk provide little sediment?

A

Human management - reinforced banks trap sediment

255
Q

What are the two main sediment sources at SBFH?

A

Cliff erosion and nearshore sediment source created by the rising of sea level

256
Q

Why is SBFH so high energy?

A

As it is relatively north facing so is very exposed and receives highest wave energy.

257
Q

SBFH: clay erosion rate versus sandstone erosion rate:

A

0.8m/year versus 0.1m/year

258
Q

SBFH: What is a feature left behind by retreating cliffs?

A

Shore platforms.

259
Q

Eustatic change:

A

Changes in the volume of water in the global ocean store.

260
Q

How does Eustatic change come about?

A

Changes in the mean global temperature.

261
Q

Isostatic:

A

Change in the level of land relative to the sea

262
Q

What are four factors that can change the earth’s global temperature?

A

-variations in the Earth’s orbit around the sun
-variations in the amount of energy produced by the sun
-changes to composition of atmosphere (e.g. volcanic eruption)
-variations in tilt of Earth’s axis

263
Q

What does a decrease in global temperature do to sea level?

A

-more precipitation falls as snow
-snow turns to ice and so water is stored on land rather than in sea in liquid form
-results in a reduction in the volume of water in the ocean

264
Q

On a molecular level what can a decrease in global temperature do to sea level?

A

As temp falls, water molecules contact leading to an increased density and reduced volume. estimated that a one degree fall in temp leads to 2m sea level drop

265
Q

What are emergent landforms?

A

Landforms shaped by processes during times of high sea level and are left exposed once the sea level drops.

266
Q

Raised beaches:

A

areas of former shore platforms that are left at a higher level than the present sea level. often found a distance inland form present costline

267
Q

Behind the beach along emergent coastlines it is not uncommon to find…

A

abandoned cliffs with wave cut notches and even caves, arches, stacks and stumps

268
Q

What is an example of a raised beach?

A

On the southern tip of the Isle of Portland there is a raised beach at about 15m above present ay sea level. Thought to be formed 125,000 years ago during Tyrrhenian inter glacial period.

269
Q

After emergence, landforms are not affected by wave action but they do remain affected by…

A

weathering and mass movement

270
Q

What happens on a molecular level to the sea level when the global temperature increases?

A

Water molecules expand and this also leads to increased water volume.

271
Q

Rias:

A

submerged river valleys formed as sea level rises

272
Q

Three features of a ria

A
  • gently sloping exposed valley sides
  • winding plan view
    -relatively shallow water becoming increasingly deep towards the centre
273
Q

When were the majority of rias on the south coasts of Devon and Cornwall formed:

A

during the post glacial sea level rise of the Flandrain Transgression

274
Q

Fjords:

A

submerged glacial valleys that have steep almost cliff like valley sides where the water is uniformly deep

275
Q

How long is the Sogne Fjord in Norway?

A

200km

276
Q

What shape is the cross section of a Fjord?

A

U

277
Q

What is the plan view of a fjord like?

A

A lot straighter than rias

278
Q

What are shingle beaches and how do they form?

A

When sea levels fall as the volume of land based ice grows, large areas of ‘new’ land emerge from the sea. Sediment accumulates on this surface, deposited by rivers, meltwater streams and low energy waves. As sea level rose at the end of the last glacial period, wave action pushed these sediments onshore.

279
Q

Both rias and fjords may be modified by the…

A

wave processes acting on their sides at the present day sea level

280
Q

How much are sea levels predicted to rise in the next 100 years?

A

0.6 m

281
Q

Human activity will cause change, either …… or …..

A

intentionally or unintentionally

282
Q

What are physical barriers to wave processes referred to as?

A

Hard engineering

283
Q

What are non-physical more environmentally friendly methods to counteracting wave processes called?

A

Soft engineering

284
Q

What are two examples of hard engineering?

A

groynes and rip rap

285
Q

What are two examples of soft engineering?

A

beach recharge and vegetation planting

286
Q

What is a case study of intentional change?

A

Sanbanks Peninsula, Dorset

287
Q

What Sediment cell is the sandbanks peninsula located?

A

Sediment cell 5

288
Q

What is the direction of LSD at the Sandbanks peninsula?

A

east to west (due to wave refraction)

289
Q

What direction is LSD at Hengistbury Head by the sandbanks peninsula in Dorset?

A

west to east

290
Q

How does Hengistbury head provide sediment?

A

It is undefended from wave action by a beach

291
Q

What are the four main reasons/needs for management at Sandbanks?

A
  • beach is a major tourist attraction due to its gently sloping profile and blue waters
  • climate change means 0.6m of sea level is predicted in next 100years which would cause flooding of many properties and could flood roads and cute peninsula off from mainland
    -large number of high value commercial properties including hotels and VERY high value residential buildings which provide significant employment and boost local economy are at risk
  • the peninsula shelters lots of salt marshes and wetlands
292
Q

What is the purpose of rock groynes at sandbanks?

A

to maintain a deep and wide beach by minimising movement of sediment by LSD. this also restricts sediment from entering harbour protecting shipping lanes.

293
Q

What is the purpose of beach recharge

A

Sand is dredged from offshore and sprayed onto beach at the cost of £20 per cube metre in order to conserve the beaches

294
Q

What is a case study for unintentional change?

A

Mangawhai and Pakiri beaches located on New Zealand’s north island

295
Q

What is special about the sand at Manawhai Pakiri?

A

It is of very high value suitable for the building industry

296
Q

The Hauraki Gulf is currently…

A

The site of the biggest sea bed mining operations

297
Q

NZ legislation on seabed mining is ….

A

less restrictive than in many other countries

298
Q

MP: Sand is an essential mineral resource for:

A

construction, concrete, glass manufacturing and beach replenishment

299
Q

How long has sand dredging occured on the 20km long stretch of Mangawhai Pakiri coastline?

A

70 years (although it ended in 2005 at Mangawhai, it continued at Pakiri)

300
Q

What are the current rates of extraction at Pakiri?

A

75000 cubic metres per year

301
Q

What are the impacts of the Mangawhai Pakiri coastline essentially being a closed system?

A

The sand is a non renewable source and so the outputs of sand are not replaced by inputs from rivers

302
Q

What city is the sand extraction at Mangawhai Pakiri convenient for and why?

A

-Aukland is located 50km south (it is NZs most economically dynamic city)
-population of over 1.5 million
-accounts for 35% of country’s gap
-rapidly growing region with over 2.3 foreign visitors in 2015
-much of the sand extracted has been used to replenish tourist beaches in Aukland

303
Q

Why is there little fluvial sediment input at Mangawhai Pakiri?

A

Because there are few sizeable rivers

304
Q

What is the issue with deeper water being created offshore at Mangawhai Pakiri due to the dredging?

A

Allows for higher energy waves to approach shoreline increasing rates of erosion along beaches and dunes.

A Level Summer - Geography (4 decks)

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