CoA Flashcards
refers to those attributes (characteristics) of a system that have a direct impact on the logical execution of a program.
Computer Architecture
is part of the abstract model of a computer that defines how the CPU is controlled by the software.
Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
is a model of a computer system (considered either as hardware or software) constructed to allow a detailed and precise analysis of how the computer system works.
An abstract model of a machine
There are 2 classifications of ISA
- RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) architecture
- CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computer) architecture
a microprocessor architecture with a simple collection and highly customized set of instructions
Reduced Instruction Set Computer Processor
It means each instruction cycle requires only one clock cycle, and each cycle contains three parameters
fetch, decode and execute
is a memory that uses capacitors to store data. And these capacitors has to constantly and dynamically be refreshed often with electricity inorder for them to store data
DRAM
is what is used in the CPU cache. It is a lot faster than DRAM because it doesn’t have to be constantly refreshed and it is also very expensive.
SRAM
is a CPU internal memory. And its job is to store copies of data and instructions from RAM that’s waiting to be used by the CPU.
CPU cache
For executing each instruction in a computer, the RISC processors require one CPI (Clock per cycle). And each CPI includes the fetch, decode and execute method applied in computer instruction.
One cycle execution time
The pipelining technique is used in the RISC processors to execute multiple parts or stages of instructions to perform more efficiently.
Pipelining technique
RISC processors are optimized with multiple registers that can be used to store instruction and quickly respond to the computer and minimize interaction with computer memory.
A large number of registers
developed by the Intel. It has a large collection of complex instructions that range from simple to very complex and specialized in the assembly language level, which takes a long time to execute the instructions.
Complex Instruction Set Computer
It is an older ISA classification. It tends to use fewer lines of assembly code, each performing multiple steps in multiple clock cycles, making it easier to compile higher-level languages.
Complex Instruction Set Computer
Isthe use of a pipeline
Pipelining
There are 3 forms that a computer represent data
- Number Systems
- Bits and Bytes
- Text codes
is the system of naming or representing numbers.
The number system or the numeral system
is the smallest unit of storage
Bit
unit of information storage
Byte
are typically stored with either 4 or 8 bytes
Integers
occurs when you attempt to store inside an integer variable a value that is larger than the maximum value the variable can hold.
integer overflow
is a format used to represent alphabets, punctuation marks, and other symbols.
Text code
is an 8-bit binary code for numeric and alphanumeric characters. It was developed and used by IBM. In this code, each decimal digit is represented by a 4-bit binary number.
EBCDIC
is a BCD which is representing decimal numbers beyond 9.
Packed BCD
is a code for representing 128 English characters as numbers, with each letter assigned a number from 0 to 127.
ASCII code
is used as a method to give all computers the same language, allowing them to share documents and files.
ASCII
are 8 bits or larger encodings where the first 7 bits are identical to that of ASCII character set.
Extended ASCII
is a version that supports representation of 256 different characters.
Extended ASCII
There are three basic I/O mechanisms that computer systems can use to communicate with peripheral devices:
- memory-mapped input/output
- I/O-mapped input/output
- direct memory access (DMA).
uses ordinary locations within the CPU’s memory address space to communicate with peripheral devices.
Memory-mapped I/O
is connected to the CPU’s address and data lines exactly like regular memory.
memory-mapped peripheral device
isan enhanced version of 8085 Microprocessor that was designed by Intel in 1976.
8086 Microprocessor
The microprocessor cannot do anything by itself therefore, it needs to be linked with memory, extra peripherals, or IO devices. This linking is called
Interfacing
In this kind of interfacing, we assign a memory address that can be used in the same manner as we use a normal memory location.
Memory-Mapped I/O Interfacing
A kind of interfacing in which we assign an 8-bit address value to the input/output devices which can be accessed using IN and OUT instruction is called
I/O Mapped I/O Interfacing
uses an address space separate from memory, and it uses special machine instructions to transfer data between that special I/O address space and the outside world.
I/O-mapped input/output
is a special form of memory-mapped I/O where the peripheral device reads and writes data located in memory without CPU intervention.
Data Memory Access (DMA)
is a unique identifier used by a device or CPU for data tracking. This binary address is defined by an ordered and finite sequence allowing the CPU to track the location of each memory byte.
memory address
isa link between components or devices connected to a computer. It carries data between a CPU and the system memory via the motherboard.
bus
3 Types of buses in a computer
- data bus
- control bus
- address bus
also called a processor bus, is a group of electrical wires that sends information (data) between two or more components.It is a computer bus that is used to transmit data among components.
Data bus
A data bus has 2 types
serialbus andparallelbus
likeUSBandFireWireconnections—use a single wire to both send and receive information between components.
Serial bus
usually refer to the types of cables, ports, and connectors used to connect these types of external devices to computers.
FireWire
like SCSI (scuzzy) connections—use many wires to communicate between components. Those buses may beinternalto the processor orexternal, relative to a given component being connected.
Parallel bus
is a set of standards for physically connecting and transferring data between computers and peripheral devices. The SCSI standards define commands, protocols, electrical, optical and logical interfaces.
Small Computer System Interface
isa computer bus that is used by the CPU to communicate with devices that are contained within the computer. It carries control signals from the processor to other components.
control bus
isa computer bus architecture. It is used to transfer data between devices. It is a computer bus that is used to specify a physical address in the memory.
address bus
are methods used to locate data and instructions in primary memory.
Memory Addressing modes
There are 5 different modes in memory addressing in Assembly language:
- Immediate Memory Addressing Mode
- Direct Memory Addressing Mode
- Indirect Memory Addressing Mode
- Register Memory Addressing Mode
- Implied Memory Addressing Mode
a programming language that communicates with the hardware of a computer directly.
Assembly language
isa term, symbol or name used to define or specify a computing function.
mnemonic
isone of a small set of data holding places that are part of the computer processor. It may hold an instruction, a storage address, or any kind of data (such as a bit sequence or individual characters).
register
is an assembly language used to see how these 5 modes can impact on the output or flow of a program.
LMC (Little Man Computer) assembly language
enable us to provide either a hard-coded value or a memory location for the operand.
Memory address modes
It is the simplest form of addressing. It means that the data to be used is hard-coded into the instruction itself. In this mode we directly transfer the data into the Register or Accumulator.
Immediate Memory Addressing
isa type of register for short-term, intermediate storage of arithmetic and logic data in a computer’s central processing unit (CPU).
Accumulator
it is automatically fetched from memory at the same time the instruction itself is fetched.
immediate operand
In this mode, we directly copy the data from the given address into the register. Whatever the data given in a memory address will be stored into the register or accumulator.
Direct Addressing
is the mnemonic for the opcode (load accumulator A).
LDA
The manner of specification of the target address is called the ______ of the machine language instruction.
addressing mode
In this mode, it lets copy data from one register to other register.
Register Memory Addressing
In this mode, we don’t need any operand. The execution/operation will happen on the data register only. The Accumulator result will have to complement on the initial Accumulator or Register data.
Implied Memory Addressing
refers to the operational units and their interconnections that realize the architectural specifications.
Computer Organization
arethe output of learning and processing block, which are sent to different output interfaces to produce desired output in the real physical world.
Control signals
is a method of generating control signals with the help of Finite State Machines (FSM).
hardwired control unit
Finite State Machine is also known as
Finite Automata (FA)
s the simplest model of computation and it has a very limited memory.
FSM
s the simplest model of computation and it has a very limited memory.
FSM
That edges are called the
transitions
The logical expressions are translated into device structures called
logic gates
Is both a symbolic representation of a logical operation and, when used in digital electronics, it can be an actual circuit in hardware.
logic gates
is a way to see all possible conditions for the variables in a logical expression and to chart the results.
truth table
inverse (NOT) of a conjunction (AND) is logically equivalent to the disjunction (OR) of two inverses (NOT)
De Morgan’s Theorem
is a component in the processor that generates the control signals that are essential to control the proper functioning of the processor.
control unit
uses the software approach to generate the control signals.
microprogrammed control unit
holds a machine instruction that is currently being executed. It holds the currently queued instruction for use.
instruction register
determines the address sequence that is read from control memory.
Microprogrammed address generator
isused to cycling the sequence of control.
microprogram counter
is the part of a CPU’s control unit that stores the CPU’s microprogram.
control store
a device that generates addresses in a microprogram.
microsequencer
A control store implementation whose contents are unalterable is known as a
Read Only Memory or Read Only Storage
one whose contents are alterable is known as a
Writable Control Store
are used to identify the nature of operation.
control signals
This signal indicates that the selected IO or memory device is to be read and is ready for accepting data available on the data bus.
RD(Read)
This signal indicates that the data on the data bus is to be written into a selected memory or IO location.
WR (Write)
It is a positive going pulse generated when a new operation is started by the microprocessor. When the pulse goes high, it indicates address. When the pulse goes down it indicates data. It is used to enable or disable theaddress bus.
ALE (Address Latch Enable)
isthe measurement of the length of time that data is being worked on by the processorand is used as an indicator of how much processing is required for a process or how CPU intensive a process or program is.
CPU time
arethe output of learning and processing block, which are sent to different output interfaces to produce desired output in the real physical world
Control signals
is where the control signals are represented in the decoded binary format that is 1 bit/CS.
Horizontal Micro-instruction
The control signals are represented in the
encoded binary format
The control signals are represented in the
encoded binary format
show paths that data flows while passing through the computer.
Solid lines
in the diagram show the paths of control signals that direct the computer’s actions.
dashed lines
The chronological development of computers that are designed primarily for performance.
mainframe systems
the fastest are called
supercomputers
is the first programmable general-purpose electronic digitalcomputer, built duringWorld War IIby the United States.
ENIAC
was one of the earliest computers in the world. It was built in Pennsylvania,Moore School of Electrical Engineering, by John Presper Eckert.
EDVAC(Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
was one of the last of the first-generation electronic computers.
BRLESC I (Ballistic Research Laboratories Electronic Scientific Computer)
a pioneering computer built at the University of Cambridge, England (Wilkes 1951b).
EDSAC (Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator)
considered abstraction an important part of computer design, and it played a major role in his discussions of computer architecture.
Von Neumann
are less complex while parallel circuits perform computations much faster.
Serial arithmetic circuits
opted for speed and choose a parallel organization.
IAS design
was developed by a team of engineers led by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly, makers of ENIAC, the first general-purpose electronic digital computer.
UNIVAC
Since the beginning of computer programming, it has been a common practice for programmers to produce a large program by combining a number of smaller programs, called
subroutines
is a storage area in which items of data are stored on a last-in first-out basis.
stack
In this generation, mainly batch processing operating system was used. Punch cards, paper tape, and magnetic tape was used as input and output devices. The computers in this generation used machine code as the programming language.
First Generation
In this generation, assembly language and high-level programming languages like FORTRAN, COBOL were used. The computers used batch processing and multiprogramming operating system.
Second Generation
used Integrated Circuits (ICs) in place of transistors. A single IC has many transistors, resistors, and capacitors along with the associated circuitry.
Third Generation
In this generation, time sharing, real time networks, distributed operating system were used. All the high-level languages like C, C++, DBASE etc., were used in this generation.
Fourth Generation
The IC was invented by
Jack Kilby
is a facet of computer architecture thattransmits and shares data throughout the computer and between devices.
system level bus
This generation is based on parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence) software.
Fifth Generation
is that component of the CPU that does the arithmetic operations and the logical comparisons that are necessary for program execution.
Arithmetic Logic Unit(ALU)
The set of registers is sometimes called the
register file
is the mechanism by which the CPU communicates with memory and I/O devices.
CPU bus
forms the basis for operation of a stored-program computer.
Fetch-Execute Cycle
are a type of computer memory used to quickly accept, store, and transfer data and instructions that are being used immediately by the CPU.
Registers
is the electronic holding place for the instructions and data a computer needs to reach quickly.
Memory
is accessed by address as if it were in the main memory that is not on the chip and the memory management unit will map the access to the cache memory as appropriate.
Memory
is accessed directly by specific instructions.
Register
that registers (asstatic memory) may actually be built from
flip-flops
computer memory is fabricated from a different technology called
dynamic memory
The CPU contains two types of registers
special purpose registersandgeneral-purpose registers
is one of the special purpose registers found on most computers.
program status register(PSR)
is when aninterruptis serviced, execution of the main program is halted.
Interrupt Service Routine
contains a number of general-purpose registers accessible to the assembly language operations (often numbered 0 through some positive integer) and a number of special-purpose registers not directly accessed by the program.
register file
contains the address of the assembly language instruction to be next executed.
program counter
contains the binary word corresponding to the machine
instruction register
contains the address of the word in main memorythat is being accessed.
memory address register
(also called MDR or memory data register) is the
register used to communicate data to and from the memory.
memory buffer register
refers to the storage of instructions in computer memory to enable it to perform a variety of tasks in sequence or intermittently.
Stored Program Control Concept
was the first computing system designed in the early 1940s. It was based on Stored Program Concept in which machine use memory for processing data.
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
is based on the stored-program computer concept, where instruction data and program data are stored in the same memory.
Von Neumann architecture
is the modified version of the Von-Neumann Architecture.
General Purpose System
can be described as a class of techniques which enables the system to achieve simultaneous data-processing tasks to increase the computational speed of a computer system.
Parallel Processing
is a single processor wherein it takes data from a single address in memory and performs a single instruction on the data at a time.
SISD
is the process of accumulating instruction from the processor through a pipeline.
Pipelining
isan online repository for information or it is some set of data.
data pool
is a central location where data is stored and managed.
repository
is a some set of instruction.
Instruction pool
also called a central processor, main processor or just processor, isthe electronic circuitry that executes instructions comprising a computer program.
central processing unit (CPU)
means flow of data and instructions.
Stream
means involving or causing sudden great damage or suffering.
Catastrophic
is a specialized processing unit with enhanced mathematical computation capability, ideal for computer graphics and machine-learning tasks.
GPU (Graphics Processing Unit)
Frequency/Clock rate
F
Cycle Count
CC
Cycle Time = Time Period = 1/F
CT
Cycles Per Instruction
CPI
Instruction Count
IC
Millions Floating Point Operation Per Second
MFLOPS
Million Instruction Per Second
MIPS
also calledclock rateorclock speed, specifies internal frequency of CPU cores.
Microprocessor frequency
is anelectronic oscillatorthat produces aclock signalfor use in synchronizing a circuit’s operation.
clock generator
is measured in theSIunit of frequencyhertz(Hz).
Clock rate or clock speed
is an abbreviation of the French word Système International.
SI unit
isthe modern form for the metric system that is used universally as a standard for measurements.
The International System of Units (SI)
There are 4 basic operations of arithmetic
- Addition (Getting the Sum)
- Subtraction (Getting the difference)
- Multiplication (Getting the product)
- Division (Getting the quotient)
is the most essential operation of arithmetic.
In its most simplistic form, addition connects two quantities into a separate quantity or sum.
Addition
It is the opposite process of addition.The addition of the term with the adverse (having a negative effect of something) term is known as
Subtraction
is known as recited addition, it is denoted by (×),it also connects with two or more conditions to appear in a single value.
Multiplication
is mainly expressed throughthe ‘÷‘ symbol and is the reverse of multiplication.It creates two terms, dividend and divisor, where the dividend is divided through the divisor,to give a single term value.
Division
A number can be converted from one number system to another number system using number system formulas.
Conversion Rules of Number Systems
isa number with no decimal or fractional partand it includes negative and positive numbers, including zero.
integer
is a representation which has a fixed number of bits for integer part and for fractional part.
Fixed point representation
is a representation which does not reserve a specific number of bits for the integer part or the fractional part.
Floating point representation
isany form of data that is measured in non-number (or word) form. It makes use of symbols and letters. Such data can only be identified in a word format.
Non-numeric data
A sequence of character is called
character data
means the string of alphanumeric characters on a distributed or other electronic network or database which may be accessed only by knowledge or possession of a private key to facilitate or record transactions on the distributed or other electronic network or database.
Data address
is used by computer systems to take logical decisions.
Logical data
is represented bya dot or square on a computer monitor display screen
Pixel
It is also called “compound assignment operators” or “combined assignment operators”.
Arithmetic Assignment Operators
is a special symbol or word that connects two or more phrases of information.
Logical Operation
The operations are listed below.
- AND 2. OR 3. NOT 4. NAND 5. NOR 6. XOR7.XNOR
is said to be the mathematical brain of the microprocessor.
ALU
End.
This is a very common problem and has happened to most people who deal with data, including myself. As well as deletion, reformatting a device can also result in the loss of stored information.
Accidental deletions
Many electronic devices depend on electricity to function properly and maintain data. A loss of power can therefore be disruptive or destructive, especially in cases where the power loss is sudden. As well as power losses, power surges can also cause problems.
Power failures
Anything that causes physical damage to the storage device can corrupt data or prevent access to it. Even minor accidents, such as knocking over a cup of coffee, might be all it takes to cause the loss of large amounts of data.
Spills, drops, and other physical accidents
Many modern forms of digital data storage are exposed to the internet. This means that the data risks being corrupted by malware, either directly, or via wider damage being caused to say, the operating system.
Viruses and other forms of malware
Whether through burglary, pickpocketing, mugging, or other forms of theft, you can lose the entire device and all the information that’s on it.
Theft
These can all destroy vast amounts of data. This is one of the main reasons why data should never be backed up in the same building, but rather in a separate place.
Fires, floods, explosions, and other catastrophic events
These can all destroy vast amounts of data. This is one of the main reasons why data should never be backed up in the same building, but rather in a separate place.
Fires, floods, explosions, and other catastrophic events
is a computing and telecommunications industry specification that describes how devices can communicate with each other.
Bluetooth
is an RF wireless technology operating at 2.4 GHz, has an effective range of 32-feet (10 meters), varying by power class, a transfer rate of 1 Mbps, and throughput of 721 Kbps.
Bluetooth
is the brain of the computer system where all types of data processing operations and all the important functions of a computer are performed by the CPU.
CPU
is a specific place on a motherboard that holds CPU processors in place. CPU or central processing unit is the multicore processor that executes instructions when running computer programs.
CPU socket or CPU slot
is the first generation of a product, typically hardware, such as the AndroidG1smartphone. It is also the first generation of IBM’s CMOS-based mainframes (Parallel Enterprise Servers).
G1(Generation 1)
isa computer program or device that provides a service to another computer program and its user, also known as the client. In a data center, the physical computer that a server program runs on is also frequently referred to as a server.
server
isa distinct mount used only for the CPU on the motherboard to ensure correct circuit chip insertion.
CPU socket
3 types of CPU sockets that remain consistent, and understanding these different types CPU sockets might help the decision-making process.
- PGA (PIN GRID ARRAY)
- LGA (LAND GRID ARRAY)
- BGA (BALL GRID ARRAY)
isthe integrated circuit packaging standard used in most second- through fifth-generation processors.
pin grid array (PGA)
is a CPU socket type where the metallic pins are located at the socket on the motherboard and the CPU is designed with flat gold contact pads located on the bottom of the CPU.
LGA (Land Grid Array)
is a CPU socket type that requires soldering the CPU on the CPU socket during installment using tiny solder dust then create a stronger bond and permanent link between the CPU and the CPU socket.
BGA or Ball Grid Array
involves huge heatsinks with many fans that conduct the heat from the CPU and require a fan to blow away the heat because the heatsink alone is not enough to cool down the CPU.
Air Cooling – Fan
involve more mechanical parts than air cooling systems such as water pumps, reservoirs, radiators, etc. Hence, the liquid cooling system is the most expensive cooling solution among these three.
Liquid Cooling – Fan
implement afanless design, naturally dissipating the heat from the CPU to the outer enclosure of the computer that passively cools the CPU.
Passive Cooling - Fanless
isa measure of how reliable a hardware product or component is.
MTBF (mean time between failures)
is a computer software designed to carry out a specific task other than one relating to the operation of the computer itself, typically to be used by end-users.
application software
isa type of computer program that is designed to run a computer’s hardware and application programs.
System software
isa general term for various physical components of a computer system.
System hardware
describes structure and basic functional parts of a computer system at a logical level… from the programmer’s point of view.
Computer Architecture
describes how hardware components operate to meet the architecture.
Computer Organization
is an expression of a program in a language that the computer can understand.
Computer Programming
Close to human expression and needs
High-level languages
Close to the computer architecture with lots of low-level details.
Low-level languages
is a set of components that interact to accomplish an objective.
System
isan abbreviation for an operation. It’s entered in the operation code field of each assembler program instruction.
mnemonic
is aprogramming languagesuch asC,FORTRAN, orPascalthat enables aprogrammerto writeprogramsthat are more or less independent of a particular type ofcomputer.
High-LevelLanguage(HLL)
isa computer software package that performs a specific function for an end user or another application based on carefully designed features.
application program
is comprised of three major components – (processor, memory, I/O) – that interact indirectly through the bus.
Simple Computer System
is the most popular pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device having a small palm size box with a round ball at its base, which senses the movement of the mouse and sends corresponding signals to the CPU when the mouse buttons are pressed.
Mouse
is also a pointing device, which is used to move the cursor position on a monitor screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions.
Joystick
is a pointing device similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an optical system placed in a small tube.
Light pen
is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead of a mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be moved.
Track ball
is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when some information is available on paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disk of the computer for further manipulation.
Scanner
is an input device which converts analog information into digital form. Digitizer can convert a signal from the television or camera into a series of numbers that could be stored in a computer.
Digitizer
is also known as Tablet or Graphics Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is used for fine works of drawing and image manipulation applications.
Digitizer
is an input device to input sound that is then stored in a digital form.
Microphone
is generally used in banks as there are large number of cheques to be processed every day.
MICR input device
is an input device used to read a printed text.
Optical Character Reader (OCR)
is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in the form of light and dark lines).
Bar Code Reader
is a special type of optical scanner used to recognize the type of mark made by pen or pencil.
Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
is used to save data and instruction to make them readily available for initial or additional processing when required.
Storing
It stores files for the operating system and software programs as well as user documents, such as photographs, text files, videos, and audio.
hard disk drive
is another type of storage medium that uses magnetic storage technology to store information.
Floppy Disk Drive (FDD)
was often used for digital data storage because of its low cost and ability to store large amounts of data.
Magnetic Tapes
is a form of optical storage, a technology that employs lasers and lights to read and write data. Initially, compact discs were used purely for music, but in the late 1980s, they began to be used for computer data storage.
Compact Discs (CDs)
is a read-only digital versatile disc (DVD) commonly used for storing large software applications.
Digital versatile disc-read only memory (DVD-ROM)
is a flash-memory data-storage device that incorporates an integrated USB interface. Also known as a thumb drive, pen drive, flash drive, memory stick, jump drive, and USB stick.
USB Flash Drives
are commonly used in multiple electronic devices, including digital cameras and mobile phones.
Secure Digital Cards (SD Cards)
uses flash memory to store data and is sometimes used in devices such as netbooks, laptops, and desktop computers instead of a traditional hard disk drive.
solid-state drive
were a common method of data storage used with early computers. This data-storage medium pretty much disappeared as new and better technologies were developed.
Punch cards (or punched cards)
were a common method of data storage used with early computers. The cards were entered into computers to enable the storage and accessing of information. This data-storage medium pretty much disappeared as new and better technologies were developed.
Punch cards (or punched cards)
