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physio > cns and pns > Flashcards

cns and pns Flashcards

1
Q

central nervous system consists of

A

the brain and spinal cord

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2
Q

the peripheral nervous system consists of

A

sensory afferent neurons and efferent neurons

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3
Q

enteric nervous system

A

located in the walls os the digestive tract (can function autonomously OR under the control of the autonomic nervous system)

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4
Q

autonomic

A

divided into parasympathetic, sympathetic branches

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5
Q

motor neuron

A

all efferent neurons but is often used specifically for physical motor neurons

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6
Q

efferent neurons

A

carry output signals from CNS to target muscles and gland

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7
Q

afferent neurons

A

carry sensory information from receptors to CNS (towards)

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8
Q

what are efferent neurons divided into

A

somatic motor division (controlling skeletal muscles) and the autonomic division (smooth and cardiac muscles, glands, etc)

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9
Q

what are the two cell types of the nervous system

A

neurons and support cells (glial cells)

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10
Q

neurons

A

are functional units of the nervous system, capable of performing the system’s functions

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11
Q

glial cells

A

communicate with neurons and offer crucial biochemical and structural support

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12
Q

dendrites

A

receiving signals (branched processes and serves as the template for protein synthesis

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13
Q

multipolar neurons

A

have many dendrites and branched axons

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14
Q

pseudounipolar neurons

A

have a single long process with the cell body off to one side

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15
Q

bipolar neurons

A

have one axon and one dendrite

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16
Q

anaxonic neurons

A

lack an axon but have numerous branched dendrites

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17
Q

interneurons

A

located entirely within the CNS and have complex branching processes for communication

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18
Q

dendritic spines

A

further expand the surface area of dendrites and play a role in receiving and processing information

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19
Q

dendrite function in CNS

A

more complex, and act as independent compartments, capable of sending signals and synthesizing proteins due to the presence of polyribosomes

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20
Q

axon hillock

A

where the axon originates

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21
Q

collaterals

A

structures where axons branched sparsely

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22
Q

function of axon

A

transmit electrical signals form the neuron’s integrating center to target cells

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23
Q

axons convey chemical and electrical signals but lack

A

ribosomes and endoplasmic reticulum

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24
Q

axonal transport

A

where proteins for the axon are synthesized and travel down

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25
Q

anterograde transport

A

moves vesicles and mitochondria from the cell body to the axon terminal (forward)

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26
Q

retrograde transport

A

returns old cellular components to the cell body for recycling

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27
Q

nerve growth factors and viruses use which transport?

A

retrograde

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28
Q

motor proteins

A

bind and unbind to microtubules with the help of ATP, stepping up their cargo along the axon

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29
Q

fast axonal transport

A

moves materials in both directions at rates up to 400m

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30
Q

slow axonal transport

A

moves soluble and cytoskeleton proteins from the cell body to the axon terminal at rates of 0.2-8 mm per day

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31
Q

microcephaly and fragile X syndrome is associated with

A

axonal transport

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32
Q

synapse

A

the region where an axon terminal meets its target cell, consisting of the presynaptic cell and postsynaptic cell

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33
Q

synaptic cleft

A

filled with extracellular matrix (between post/pre synaptic cell

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34
Q

chemical synapses

A

where the presynaptic cell releases a chemical signal that binds to receptors on the postsynaptic cell

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35
Q

electrical synapses

A

allow bidirectional and faster communication through gap junction channels

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36
Q

neurotrophic factors

A

chemicals secreted by schwann cells that keep damaged neurons alive

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37
Q

schwann cells

A

support and insulate axons by forming myelin (PNS)

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38
Q

oligodendrocytes

A

support and insulate axons by forming myelin (CNS)

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39
Q

myelin

A

composed of multiple concentric layer of phospholipid membrane, acts as insulation and speeds up signal transmission along axons

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40
Q

gap junctions

A

allow the flow of nutrients and information between membrane layers

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41
Q

difference between oligodendrocytes and schwann cells

A

oligodendrocytes: can myelinate portions of several axons
schwann cells: associated with only one axon

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42
Q

nodes of ranvier

A

tiny gaps between myelinated segments in the PNS, where the axon membrane is in direct contract with ECF

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43
Q

PNS has two types of glial cells

A

schwann cells and satellite cells

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44
Q

CNS has four types of glial cells:

A

microglia, astrocytes, ependymal cells, and oligodendrocytes

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45
Q

ganglia

A

clusters of nerve cell bodies found outside CNS and appear as knots or swellings along a nerve

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46
Q

how do glial cells communicate with neurons

A

primarily through chemical signals

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47
Q

glial cells respond to

A

neurotransmitters and neuromodulators secreted by neurons

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48
Q

what happens if the axon is severed

A

the cell body and attached axon segment survive but the separated axon segment degenerates

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49
Q

what happens if a neuron’s cell body dies

A

the entire neuron dies

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50
Q

what happens if there is damage to somatic motor neurons

A

permanent paralysis of the innervated muscles

50
Q

damage to the sensory cells causes

A

loss of sensation

51
Q

resting membrane potential difference (Vm)

A

representing the separation of electrical charge across the cell membrane

51
Q

what is more concentrated in the ECF

A

Na+, Cl-, and Ca2+

51
Q

what is more concentrated in the cytosol & the major ion contributing to the resting membrane potential

A

K+

51
Q

nernst equation

A

describes the membrane potential if the membrane were permeable to only one ion

51
Q

equilibrium potential

A

is the membrane potential at which electrical and chemical forces on the ion are equal and opposite

52
Q

neurons at rest leak what into the cell?

A

leak Na+, making the resting membrane potential slightly more positive than if the cell were permeable only to K+

52
Q

goldman-hodgkin (GHK) equation

A

calculates the membrane potential by considering the contributions of multiple ions that can cross the membrane

53
Q

P

A

relative permeability of the membrane to the ion

54
Q

what happens is the membrane is not permeable to an ion

A

its permeability values is zero and doesn’t affect the membrane potential

55
Q

cells at rest are not permeable to

A

Ca2+

56
Q

hyperpolarization

A

occurs if the membrane becomes more permeable to K+, causing a loss of positive charge inside the cell and Cl- enters the cell

57
Q

ion channels

A

they allow Na+, K+, Ca2+, and Cl- to pass

58
Q

channels conductance (G)

A

indicate how easily ions flow through a channel and varies with the gating state and channel protein isoform

59
Q

mechanical ion channels

A

open in response to physical forces

60
Q

chemically gated ion channels

A

response to ligands like neurotransmitters and intracellular signals

61
Q

voltage gated ion channels

A

respond to changes in membrane potential, crucial for electrical signal conduction

62
Q

channel activation

A

refers to the opening of channels to allow ion flow

63
Q

channel inactivation

A

mechanisms vary

64
Q

graded potentials

A

are changes in membrane potential that occur in dendrites, cell body or near the axon terminals of neurons

65
Q

local current flow

A

a wave of depolarization caused by sodium ion entry

66
Q

trigger zone

A

is the integrating center with a high concentration of voltage gated Na+ channels and initiates an action potential

67
Q

action potentials

A

are uniform electrical signals that travel from a neuron’s trigger zone to the end of its axon without losing strength (100mv)

68
Q

what are the three phases of the action poential

A

the rising phase, the falling phase, and the after hyper-polarization phase

69
Q

rising phase

A

begins when a grade potential depolarizes the membrane to -55mV, then to 0mV, then to 60mV. the action potential peaks at +30mV

70
Q

falling phase

A

increased K+ permeability and reaches 30mV, K+ exits the cell and the membrane potential rapidly drops reaching -70mV but K+ permeability is still high, leading to hyper polarization of -90mV called undershoot. returns back to -70mV

71
Q

how many gates due voltage gated Na+ channels have?

A

two gates: inactivation and activation

72
Q

when is the activation gate closed?

A

at resting membrane potential, preventing Na+ movement

73
Q

what happens during the reset of Na+ channel gates

A

the activation gate is closing, and the inactivation gate is opening

74
Q

absolute refractory period

A

lasts about 1-2 milliseconds, a second action potential can not be triggered allows the Na+ channel gates to reset

75
Q

relative refractory period

A

follows the absolute refractory period K+ channels remain open; a stronger than normal graded potential can reopen Na+ channels

76
Q

conduction

A

maintains the strength of action potentials from the trigger zone to the end of the axon

77
Q

where does the action potential travel

A

travels in both directions: towards the axon terminal and towards the cell body

78
Q

why do unmyelinated axons travel slower?

A

have low resistance to current leak due to their entire membrane being in contact with extracellular fluid and having ion channels

79
Q

saltatory conduction

A

in myelinated axons where action potentials jump from node to node

80
Q

nodes of ranvier have high concentration of?

A

voltage-gated Na+ channels

81
Q

capacitance

A

the ability of the cell membrane to store charge, affecting how fast voltage changes across the membrane (myelinated have decreased capacitance)

82
Q

hyperkalemia

A

high levels of K+, making neurons more excitable

83
Q

hypokalemia

A

low levels of K+, causing muscle weakness

84
Q

neurohormones

A

are secreted into the blood and distributed throughout the body

85
Q

neurotransmitters

A

act as synapses, eliciting rapid responses; bind to specific receptor types

86
Q

neuromodulators

A

act as both synaptic and non-synaptic sites and have slow effects

87
Q

receptor channels (neurocrine receptors)

A

are ligand-gated ion channels that mediate rapid responses by altering ion flow across the membrane

88
Q

G protein-coupled receptors

A

mediate slower responses through a second messenger system and can regulate ion channel activity (involved in neuromodulation)

89
Q

what are the 7 types of neurocrine molecules

A

acetylcholine, amines, amino acids, peptides, purines, gases, and lipids

90
Q

CNS neurons release a variety of chemical signals including:

A

polypeptides: hypothalamic releasing hormones, oxytocin, and vasopressin

91
Q

PNS secretes three main neurocrine molecules:

A

acetylcholine, norepinephrine, and the neurohormone epinephrine

92
Q

acetylcholine

A

is synthesized from choline and acetyl coenzyme A in the axon terminal

93
Q

choline

A

found in membrane phosholipids

94
Q

cholinergic receptors

A

classified into two main subtypes: nicotinic and muscarinic

95
Q

nicotinic receptors

A

are monovalent cation channels allowing both Na+ and K+ to pass, with Na+ entry exceeding K+ exit due to a stronger electrochemical gradient, leading to depolarization and increased likelihood of action potential firing

96
Q

muscarinic receptors

A

are G-protein coupled receptors linked to second messenger systems and come in 5 subtypes (targets parasympathetic) (CNS)

97
Q

adrenergic

A

(adrenaline) have alpha & beta subtypes; linked with G-proteins and use different second messenger pathways

98
Q

norepinephrine

A

is the primary neurotransmitter of the PNS autonomic sympathetic division (neurons secreting norepinephrine are called adrenergic or noradrenergic

99
Q

where does neurotransmitter synthesis occur

A

in both nerve cell body and the axon terminal

100
Q

where are polypeptides synthesized

A

in the cell body because axon terminals lack the necessary organelles for protein synthesis

101
Q

propeptide

A

resulted from the synthesis of polypeptides; packaged into vesicles along with modifying enzymes and transported to the axon terminal via fast axonal transport

102
Q

what is require for the synthesis of smaller neurotransmitters

A

enzymes

103
Q

where are neurotransmitters stored

A

in vesicles in the axon terminal and released into the synaptic cleft via exocytosis

104
Q

how does the process of the release of neurotransmitters begin?

A

when an action potential depolarizes the axon terminal, opening voltage gated Ca2++ channels, then calcium enters the cell due to their higher extracellular concentration, binding to regulatory proteins and triggering exocytosis, synaptic vesicle membranes fuse with the cell membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft

105
Q

why are vesicle membranes recycled?

A

they are recycled by endocytosis to prevent an increase in membrane surface area

106
Q

why is neural signaling brief

A

due to the rapid removal or inactivation of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft

107
Q

how can unbound transmitters be removed?

A

by diffusion away from the synapse, enzymatic inactivation, or reuptake into cells

108
Q

short term synaptic plasticity

A

can either enhance (facilitation) or decrease (depression) synaptic activity

108
Q

what was does the duration and strength of a stimuli tell you?

A

stronger stimuli result in more action potentials per second, increasing neurotransmitter release

109
Q

process of acetylcholine

A

it’s broken down by acetylcholinesterase (AChE) into choline and acetyl CoA. choline is then transported back into the presynaptic terminal via Na+ dependent co-transporter and reused to synthesize new ACh

110
Q

what does increased strength of graded potentials do?

A

leads to more frequent action potentials

111
Q

synaptic plasticity

A

refers to the nervous system[s ability to change synaptic activity, occurring mainly in the CNS

112
Q

second messengers

A

can open or close ion channels from the cytoplasmic side, leading to changes in membrane potential known as slow synaptic potentials

113
Q

GPCR activated neurotransmitters

A

can modify existing cell proteins or regulate the production of new proteins, influencing neuron growth, development, and long-term memory

114
Q

postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs)

A

increase the likelihood of an action potential, they are depolarizing synaptic potentials

115
Q

inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs)

A

decrease the likelihood of an action potential, they are hyper polarizing synaptic potentials

116
Q

spatial summation

A

graded potentials from different locations on the neuron combine, lead to an action potential if the combine excitatory EPSPs exceed threshold

117
Q

what happens when inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) counteracts the EPSPs

A

prevents the action potential, and can result in postsynaptic inhibition if inhibitory neurotransmitters are involved

physio (6 decks)

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