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physio > autonomic and somatic motor control > Flashcards

autonomic and somatic motor control Flashcards

1
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

reflecting its control over involuntary functions and internal organs

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2
Q

sympathetic branch

A

associated with the fight or flight, preparing the body for stressful situations by increasing heart rate, dilating blood vessels to muscles and producing glucose

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3
Q

hypothalamus

A

mediates the total-body response in fight or flight situation

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4
Q

where is sensory information from somatosensory and visceral receptors sent?

A

to homeostatic control centers in the hypothalamus, pons and medulla (regulates blood pressure, temperature, and water balance

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5
Q

what receptors does the hypothalamus contain to monitor osmolarity and the body temperature

A

osmoreceptors and thermoreceptors

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6
Q

where does nicotine bind to

A

nictotinic acetylcholine receptors

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7
Q

walter cannon’s properties of homeostasis

A

preservation of internal environment fitness, up-down regulation by tonic control, antagonistic control, and chemical signals with different effect in different tissues (sympathetic and parasympathetic branches exhibit this)

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8
Q

sympathetic innervation

A

increases heart rate

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9
Q

parasympathetic stimulation

A

decreases heart rate

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10
Q

all autonomic pathways consist of two neurons

A

the preganglionic neuron and the postganlionic neuron

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11
Q

postganglionic neuron

A

has its cell body in the ganglion and projects its axon to the target tissue

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11
Q

preganglionic neuron

A

originates in the CNS and projects to an autonomic ganglion outside the CNS

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12
Q

ganglion

A

is a cluster or nerve cell bodies outside the CNS while the nucleus is the equivalent structure within the CNS

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13
Q

divergence is a key feature of autonomic pathways

A

where one preganglionic neuron can synapse with multiple postganglionic neurons, allowing a single CNS signal to affect many target cells

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14
Q

sympathetic pathways originate in

A

the thoracic and lumbar regions of the spinal cord

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15
Q

sympathetic ganglia

A

are located in two chains along either side of the vertebral column and along the descending aorta, they have short preganglionic neurons and lost postganglionic neurons

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16
Q

parasympathetic originates

A

in the sacral region and control pelvic organs

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17
Q

parasympathetic ganglia are located

A

near their target organs, resulting in long preganglionic axons and short postganglionic axons; targets the head, neck and internal organs

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18
Q

the vagus nerve

A

(cranial nerve X) is the major parasympathetic tract, containing about 75% of all parasympathetic fibers; carries sensory information from internal organs to the brain and parasympathetic output from the brain to organs

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19
Q

vagotomy

A

the surgical cutting of the vagus nerve, was historically used to study the autonomic nervous system effcts

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20
Q

mixed nerve

A

a nerve that carries both sensory and motor information

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21
Q

what are the four regions of the spinal cord

A

cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral

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22
Q

both sympathetic and parasympathetic preganglionic release

A

acetylcholine (ACh) onto nicotinic cholinergic receptors (nAChR) on the postganglionic cell

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23
Q

what do most postganglionic sympathetic neurons secrete

A

norepinephrine (NE) onto adrenergic receptors on the target cell

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24
Q

what do most postganglionic parasympathetic neurons secrete

A

acetylcholine onto muscarinic cholinergic receptors (mAChR) on the target cell

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25
Q

sympathetic cholinergic neurons

A

sympathetic postganglionic neurons those terminating on sweat glands, secret ACh instead of norepinephrine

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26
Q

nonadrenergic, noncholinergic neurons are classiffied as sympathetic or parasympathetic based on

A

the origin of their preganglionic fibers

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27
Q

autonomic neurons target

A

smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, exocrine glands, some endocrine glands, lymphoid tissues, the liver, and some adipose tissue

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28
Q

neuroeffector junction

A

the synapse between a postganglionic autonomic neurons and its target cell

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29
Q

autonomic synapses vs. synapses

A

postganglionic axons end in a series of swollen areas called varicosities

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30
Q

varicosities

A

contain vesicles filled with neurotranmitters

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31
Q

preganglionic neurons

A

may co-secrete neuropeptides with acetylcholine, acting as neuromodulators to produce slow synaptic potentials and modify postganglionic neuron activity

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32
Q

adrenal medulla

A

specialized neuroendocrine tissue associated with the sympathetic nervous system

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33
Q

the adrenal medulla

A

forms the core of the adrenal glands, which are located atop the kidneys

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34
Q

each adrenal gland consists of two parts

A

the adrenal cortex (secretes steroid hormones) and the adrenal medulla (secretes epinephrine)

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35
Q

the adrenal medulla

A

develops from the same embryonic tissue as sympathetic neurons and is considered a neurosecretory structure

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36
Q

chromaffin cells

A

lack axons, secrete the neurohormone epinephrine into the blood

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37
Q

the release of epinephrine by the adrenal medulla is part of the body’s

A

fight or flight response to alarm signals from the CNS

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38
Q

direct agonists and anatgonists

A

interact with target receptors to mimic of block neurotransmitter action

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39
Q

indirect agonists and antagonists alter

A

neurotransmitter secretion, reuptake or degradation (EX: cocaine blocks norepinephrine reuptake, extending its excitatory effect and potentially causing heart attacks due to sympathetic induce vasocontriction) (antidepressants are indirect agonists)

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40
Q

cholinesterase inhibitors (anticholinesterases) block ACh degradation, extending the active life of ACh molecules.

A

symptoms include excessie stimulation of autonomic and somatic motor target tissues

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41
Q

selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)

A

have fewer autonomic side effects compared to older antidepressants (newer antidepressants may influence both norepinephrine and serotonin action)

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42
Q

somatic motor pathways

A

control skeletal muscles and differ from autonomic pathways in both anatomy and function

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43
Q

somatic motor pathways consists of a

A

single neuron originating in the CNS that projects its axons to the target tissue, which is always a skeletal muscle

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44
Q

somatic pathways are always

A

excitatory, whereas ANS can be either excitatory or inhibitory

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45
Q

the cell bodies of somatic neurons are located in

A

the ventral horn of the spinal cord or in the brain

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46
Q

these neurons have a

A

long single axon that projects to the skeletal muscle target

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47
Q

somatic motor neurons branch near

A

their targets, with each branch dividing into a cluster of enlarged axon terminals on the surface of skeletal muscle fibers (enables a single motor neuron to control muscle fibers simultaneously)

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48
Q

neuromuscular junction (NMJ)

A

is the synapse between a somatic motor neuron and a muscle fiber

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49
Q

NMJ consists of three main components:

A

the presynaptic axon terminal of the motor neuron, the synaptic cleft, and the postsynaptic membrane of the skeletal muscle fiber

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50
Q

the presynaptic axon terminal contains

A

synaptic vesicles and mitochondria

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51
Q

what is essential for the formation and maintenance of NMJs

A

schwann cells to cover the axon terminals and secret chemical signal molecules

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52
Q

the postsynaptic membrane

A

has folds resembling shallow gutters

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53
Q

nicotinic ACh receptor (nAChR) channels

A

are clustered in an active zone along the upper edge of each fold

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54
Q

the synaptic cleft

A

is filled with a fibrous matrix containing collagen fibers that align the axon terminal and motor end plate

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55
Q

the matrix

A

also contains acetylcholinesterase (AChE), an enzyme that deactivated acetylcholine (ACh) by braking it down into acetyl and choline

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56
Q

skeletal muscles make up

A

about 40% of total body weight and are responsible for positioning and moving the skeleton

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57
Q

skeletal muscles are attached to bone by..

A

tendons made of collagen

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58
Q

the origin of the muscle

A

is the end attached closest to the trunk or the more stationary bone

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59
Q

the insertion is

A

the more distal or mobile attachment

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60
Q

contraction of skeletal muscles

A

moves the skeleton when the bone are connected by flexible joint

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61
Q

a muscle is called a flexor

A

if it brings the centers of connected bones closer together during contraction, resulting in flexion

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62
Q

a muscle is called an extensor

A

if it moves the bones away from each other during contraction, resulting in extension

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63
Q

antagonistic muscles

A

both have flexor and extensor muscles that exert opposite effects (bicep is flexor and tricep is extensor)

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64
Q

skeletal muscles are composed of

A

muscle fibers that are collections of muscle cells

65
Q

each skeletal muscle fiber

A

is a long, cylindrical cell with multiple nuclei located near the surface. and are the largest cells in the body, formed by the fusion of many embryonic muscle cells

66
Q

satellite cells, which are committed stem cells, reside just outside the muscle fiber membrane

A

activate and differentiate into muscle cells when requires for muscle growth and repair

67
Q

muscle fibers

A

in a muscle are arranged with their long axes in parallel, and each skeletal muscle fiber is encased in connective tissue

68
Q

fascicles

A

groups of adjacent muscle fibers bundled into units

69
Q

what is located between the fascicles?

A

collagen, elastic fibers, nerves and blood vessels

70
Q

the entire muscle is enclosed in

A

a connective tissue sheath

71
Q

connective tissue sheath

A

is continuous with the connective tissue around the muscle fibers and fascicles, as well as the tendons that attach the muscle to bones

72
Q

sarcolemma

A

the cell membrane of a muscle fiber

73
Q

sarcoplasm

A

is the cytoplasm

74
Q

myofibrils

A

are highly organized bundles of contractile and elastic proteins within striated muscles that facilitate contraction

75
Q

skeletal muscle fiber contain extensive sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR),

A

a modified endoplasmic reticulum that wraps around each myofibril

76
Q

SR consists of

A

longitudinal tubules with enlarged end regions called terminal cisternae

77
Q

cisternae

A

concentrate and sequester Ca2+ using Ca2+ ATPase in the SR membrane

78
Q

what is crucial for muscle contraction?

A

calcium release from the SR

79
Q

transverse tubules (t-tubules)

A

continuation of the muscle fiber membrane, which makes the lumen of t-tubules continuous with the ECF

80
Q

t-tubules enable

A

action potentials to reach the terminal cisternae quickly ensuring a prompt muscle fiber response

81
Q

the cytosol between myofibrils contains

A

glycogen granules and mitochondria, providng energy for muscle contraction through oxidative phosphorylation

82
Q

myofibrils

A

composed of repeating units called sarcomeres, include myosin, actin, tropomyosin, troponin, titin, and nebulin

83
Q

myosin

A

is a motor protein with heavy and light chains; heavy chains form heads, tails, and a hinge neck region.

84
Q

myosin heads

A

have ATPase activity and actin-binding sites

85
Q

actin

A

forms thin filaments from G-actin molecules polymerizing in to F-actin chains, with twist together

86
Q

myosin crossbridges

A

connect thin and thin filaments with states of low-force (relaxed) and high-forced (contracting)

87
Q

sacromeres are the contractile units of myofibrils, consisting of

A

Z disks I bands, A bands, H zone, M line

88
Q

Z disks

A

attachment sites for thin filaments

89
Q

I bands

A

light bands with only think filaments, bisected by Z disks

89
Q

A bands

A

dark bands with the entire length of thick filaments, overlapping with thin filaments at the edges

90
Q

H zone

A

lighter central region of the A band with only thick filaments

90
Q

M line

A

Attachment site for thick filaments dividing the A band in half

91
Q

each thin filament is surrounded by

A

three thick filaments, and each thick filament is encircled by six thin filaments

91
Q

titin stabilizes

A

the position of contractile filaments and its elasticity returns stretched muscles to their resting length

91
Q

titin

A

is a huge elastic molecule, the largest known protein, composed of more than 25,000 amino acids, stretching from one Z disk o the neighboring M line

92
Q

nebulin

A

is an in elastic giant protein that lies alongside thin filaments and attached to the Z disks, helping to align the actin filaments of the sacromere

93
Q

muscle tension

A

is the force created by contracting muscle fibers, while the load is the weight or force of opposing the contraction

94
Q

contraction

A

is an active process requiring ATP to create tension in a muscle, whereas relaxation is the release of this tension

95
Q

what is the process of muscle contraction ?

A

events at the neuromuscular junction convert an acetylcholine signal from a somatic motor neuron into an electrical signal in the muscle fiber. excitation contraction (E-C) coupling translates muscle action potentials into calcium signals, which then initiate a contraction-relaxation cycle. the sliding filament theory explains the contraction-relaxation cycle at the molecular level, where one cycle intact muscles is termed a muscle twitch

96
Q

the sliding filament theory

A

is fundamental to understanding muscle contraction, followed by the integrated function of muscle fibers during excitation-contraction coupling. (where fixed-length actin and myosin filaments slide past each other, requiring energy, to cause muscle contraction)

97
Q

in a resting sacromere

A

thick and thin filaments overlap slightly, with a large I band (thin filaments only) and a A band (length of thick filament)

98
Q

during contraction

A

the Z disks move closer, the I band and H zone nearly disappear , but the A band length remains constant, indicating sliding of actin filaments along myosin filaments

99
Q

what does the sliding filament theory explain?

A

it explains muscle contraction and force generation without movement, as tension in a muscle fiber is proportional to the number of high force crossbridge between thick and thin filaments

100
Q

myosin crossbridges generate

A

force by pushing actin filaments during muscle contraction (myosin heads binds to actin molecules)

101
Q

what does a calcium signal trigger

A

the power stroke, causing myosin crossbridges to swivel and push actin filaments toward the sacromere center

102
Q

what happens after the power stroke

A

myosin heads release actin, swivel back and bind to new actin molecules to start another cycle

103
Q

myosin heads do not release

A

simultaneously to prevent fibers from sliding back to their starting position

104
Q

the energy for the power stroke in muscle contraction comes from

A

ATP

105
Q

myosin acts as what?

A

ATPase, hydrolyzing ATP into ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi)

106
Q

the energy released from ATP hydrolysis is stored as

A

potential energy the angle between the myosin head and the myosin filament

107
Q

the potential energy in the cocked myosin heads in converted into what??

A

kinetic energy during the power stroke, which moves actin

108
Q

Troponin (TN)

A

is a calcium binding complex of three proteins that controls the position of tropomyosin

109
Q

tropomyosin

A

is an elongated protein polymer that wraps around actin filaments and partially covers actin’s myosin binding sites, preventing myosin from completing its power stroke

110
Q

what must happen for muscle contraction to occur

A

tropomyosin must shift to an “on” position, uncovering actin’s myosin-binding sites

111
Q

what can cause calcium troponin C complex to pull tropomyosin away from actin’s myosin-binding sites

A

when a calcium signal initiates contraction

112
Q

when does muscle relaxation occur?

A

when cytosolic Ca2+ concentrations decrease, causing Ca2+ to unbind from troponin

113
Q

calcium is now know to be

A

a nearly universal second messenger in various cellular processes

114
Q

the contractile cycle in skeletal muscle begins with

A

the rigor state, where myosin heads are tighlt bound to G-actin molecules without any nucleotide (ATP or ADP bound to myosin)

115
Q

ATP binds to the myosin head…

A

decreasing actin binding affinity causing myosin to release from actin

116
Q

ATP hydrolysis occurs, providing energy

A

for the myosin head to rotate and reattach to actin

117
Q

at the end of the power stroke…

A

myosin releases ADP, returning to the rigor state, ready to start a new cycle with the binding of a new ATP molecule

118
Q

rigor state is brief because…

A

ATP quickly binds to myosin after ADP is released

119
Q

rigor mortis

A

is where ATP supplies are exhausted, where muscles remain in the rigor state to due immovable crossbridges. this persists until enzymes from decaying fibers break down muscle proteins

120
Q

what is f-actin (filamentous actin)

A

is a polymerized form of G-actin (globular actin)

121
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh)

A

is released from the somatic motor neuron and binds to ACh receptor-channels on the motor end plate of the muscle fiber initiating an action potential

122
Q

the opening of ACh-gated channels allows both

A

Na+ and K+ to cross the membrane, with Na+ influx exceeding K+ efflux due to a greater electrochemical driving force for Na+ (results in depolarization)

123
Q

the depolarization creates

A

an endplate potential (EPP), which typically reaches the threshold to initiate a muscle action potential

124
Q

the muscle action potential trigger calcium release from the sacroplasmic reticulum,

A

and calcium combines with troponin to initiate muscle contraction

125
Q

excitation-contraction coupling and relaxation

A
  • the action potential travels across the muscle fiber surface and into the t-tubules through the sequential opening of voltage gated Na+ channels
  • it triggers Ca2+ release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, increasing free cytosolic Ca2+ levels about 100 fold
  • leads to muscle contraction
  • the electrical signal is transduced into a calcium signal via two key membrane proteins: the voltage sensing L-type calcium channel protein and the Ca2+ channels (facilitating the release of Ca2+)
126
Q

to end muscle contraction…

A

calcium must be removed from the cytosol

127
Q

what pumps back calcium into its lumen used a Ca2+ - ATPase?

A

the sacroplasmic reticulum

128
Q

as the free cytosolic Ca2+ concentration decreases…

A

the equilibrium between bound and unbound Ca2+ is distrubed, leading to the release of calcium from troponin

129
Q

the removal of Ca2_ allows tropomyosin

A

to slide back and block actin’s myosin binding site

130
Q

the release of cross bridges and the action of elastic fibers in the sacromere and connective tissue

A

help the muscle fiber relax

131
Q

the sequence of events in excitation-contraction (E-C) coupling starts with

A

a somatic motor neuron action potential, followed by a skeletal muscle action potential and then muscle contraction

132
Q

a twitch

A

a single contraction-relaxation cycle in a skeletal muscle fiber

133
Q

there is a latent period between the muscle action potential and

A

the onset of muscle tension, representing the time needed for calcium release and binding to troponin

134
Q

muscle tension

A

increases to a maximum during contraction as crossbridge interactions rise, the decreases during the relaxation phase as elastic elements return sarcomeres to their resting length

135
Q

a single action potential in a muscle fiber triggers

A

a single twitch

136
Q

muscle twitches differ

A

among fibers in the speed of tension development, maximum tension achieved, and twitch duration

137
Q

single twitch tension is determined by

A

the length of the sarcomere but does not represent the maximum force a muscle fiber can develop

138
Q

the force generated by a single muscle fiber can be increased by

A

increasing the frequency of muscle action potentials

139
Q

if action potentials are separated by long intervals,

A

the muscle fiber relaxes completely between stimuli

140
Q

shorter intervals between action potentials prevent complete relaxation,

A

resulting in a more forceful contraction, a process known as summation

141
Q

tetanus

A

repreated high frequency action potential, a state of maximal contraction
- incomplete (unfused) tetanus occurs when the muscle fiber does not relax at all
- complete (fused) tetanus occurs when the muscle fiber does not relax at all, reaching and maintaining maximum tension

142
Q

muscle action potentials are initiated

A

by the somatic motor neuron controlling the muscle fiber

143
Q

the motor unit is the basic unit of contraction in skeletal muscle

A

consisting of a somatic motor neuron and the muscle fibers it controls

144
Q

when a somatic motor neuron fires an action potential,

A

all muscle fibers in its motor unit contract simultaneously

145
Q

each muscle fiber is innervated by only one neuron,

A

but a single neuron can innervate multiple muscle fibers

146
Q

the number of muscle fibers in a motor unit varies:

A

fine motor action (eye movements) have motor units with as few as 3-5 fibers, which gross motor actions (walking) have motor units with hundreds or thousands of fibers

147
Q

fine motor units allow for small, precise movements,

A

while gross motor units result in larger, more powerful movements

148
Q

fast twitch fibers are associated with activities requiring quick bursts of energy

A

(sprinting, weight lifting)

149
Q

slow-twitch fibers are suited for endurance activities

A

(distance running)

150
Q

endurance training increases…

A

the number of capillaries and mitochondria in muscle tissue, improving oxygen delivery and aerobic capacity.

151
Q

maximum force is acheived when

A

the highest-threshold neurons activate glycolytic fast twitch fibers which fatigue quickly

152
Q

sustained muscle contractions require

A

continuous action potentials from the central nervous system

153
Q

summation of contraction can lead to

A

fatigue in easily fatigued muscle fibers

154
Q

asynchronous recruitment of motor units helps prevent

A

fatigue in submaximal, contractions by alternating active motor units

155
Q

alternation of motor units results in a

A

smooth overall contraction, but fatigue eventually reduces the force of contraction

physio (6 decks)

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