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genetics, evolution and ecosystems > cloning and biotech > Flashcards

cloning and biotech Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

what is vegetative propagation?

A

natural cloning of plants which involves perennating organ and asexual reproduction

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2
Q

what are the different ways of natural plant cloning?

A

stem tubers eg potatoes
- becomes swollen with food and become tubers which develop buds and roots
runners eg strawberries
- side stem runs long the soil and where it touches it plants itself
rhizomes eg marram grass
- underground horizontal stem which develops vertical shoots

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3
Q

what are the advantages of using plant cuttings instead of seeds?

A

faster and identical to plant so useful if it has a favourable trait

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4
Q

what is micropropagation?

A

uses cuttings to produce many plant clones from a single parent plant

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5
Q

when is micropropagation used?

A
  • plant doesnt produce seeds or respond well to cloning
  • rare or genetically modified
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6
Q

what are the basic principles of micropropagation and tissue cultures?

A
  • take a small sample of meristem in sterile conditions
  • place in a nutrient medium to encourage mitosis
  • this produces a callus which is divided into individual cells and each transferred to a different hormone medium
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7
Q

what is a callus?

A

mass of undifferentiated cells

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8
Q

what are 4 invertebrates that clone naturally?

A
  • starfish
  • flatworms
  • hydra
  • insects
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9
Q

how do starfish clone?

A

fragments of limbs break off and generate a new organism

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10
Q

how do flatworms clone?

A

fragments break off and generate a new organism

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11
Q

how do hydra clone?

A

form small buds on their side which produce clones

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12
Q

how do insects clone?

A

parthenogenesis

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13
Q

why are clones of animals not technically exact copies?

A

mitochondrial DNA from the enucleated egg cell with DNA of original clone

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14
Q

why do monozygotic twins appear different when born?

A

different position and nutrients

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15
Q

why is cloning a vertebrate more complex?

A
  • dont naturally clone
  • more complex organisms
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16
Q

why are artificial clones of animals made?

A
  • farming eg max milk production
  • pharming-used for medicine
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17
Q

what is the method for artificial embryo splitting?

A
  • cow is super ovulated and creates optimum conditions for fertilisation
  • artificial or natural insemination occurs and a zygote is created
  • zygote divides into an embryo which is then removed from the uterus
  • split to form several embryos which are all inserted into surrogate mothers and they give birth to identical cows
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18
Q

how would an egg be obtained for artificial embryo splitting?

A
  • superovulation
  • treated with FSH and LH
  • washed out of oviduct
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19
Q

why is artificial embryo splitting beneficial for endangered species?

A
  • increases rate of reproduciton
  • doesnt require fertile female
  • female isnt at risk
  • successful embryo can be divided
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20
Q

what are 3 ways to make a gene bank?

A
  • sperm bank
  • oocytes
  • embryos
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21
Q

advs and disadvs of tissue culture method

A

advs
- can make many plants
- genetically identical
- desired characteristics
disadvs
- more susceptible to being wiped out by disease
-reduced gene pool so less genetic diversity

22
Q

what is scnt?

A

somatic cell nuclear transfer

23
Q

what is the method of scnt?

A
  • remove nucleus of adult somatic cell
  • remove nucleus of egg cell
  • nucleus from somatic cell is added to the egg and given a mild electric shock so it fuses and divides (electrofusion)
  • embryo is placed into the uterus of a different animal of the same species and grows to term
  • a clone of the animal which the somatic cell nucleus is from is created
24
Q

what is the problem with scnt?

A

the clone is the same age as the somatic cell which means the animal wont live as long

25
Q

what are the arguments that support scnt?

A
  • high yielding animals can produce more offspring than natural reproduction
  • clone rare or endangered species
26
Q

what are the arguments against scnt?

A
  • inefficient as it can take many eggs to produce an offspring
  • embryos dont develop resulting in miscarriage or malformed offspring
  • shortened lifespan
27
Q

what is biotechnology?

A

applying biological organisms or enzymes to develop or produce useful products

28
Q

why are microorganisms used in biotechnology?

A
  • no welfare issues (not murder or exploitation to use them)
  • large range of microorganisms that can do different things eg. differences in chemical synthesis
  • very short life cycle and rapid growth rate given optimum conditions
  • can GM them with no ethical dilemmas
29
Q

what are two different types of food production?

A

indirect - microbe acting on other foods (bread, cheese, yoghurt)
direct - you eat the microbe (mycoprotein in quorn)

30
Q

what are the disadvantages to using microorganisms in food production?

A
  • some produce toxins if optimum conditions arent maintained
  • difficult to separate microorganisms from the product
  • some people don’t condone genetic modification
31
Q

why is an air filter used on a fermenter?

A

remove other pathogens and only allowing oxygen for respiration

32
Q

why is a water jacket necessary on a fermenter?

A

respiration is exothermic and releases energy and disrupts optimum temp so water regulates it

33
Q

why is a vent needed on a fermenter?

A

release waste gases so pressure doesnt build up

34
Q

why are impellers needed on a fermenter?

A

continuous stirring so microbes dont sink to the bottom and die

35
Q

what is bioremediation?

A

using microorganisms to break down pollutants and contaminants in soil or water

36
Q

what are the two approaches to bioremediation?

A
  • natural organisms added to oil spills to break them down and neutralise them
  • GM organisms that are created to break down specific substances they wouldnt usually encounter eg. mercury
37
Q

how do you inoculate broth?

A
  • make suspension of bacteria to be grown
  • mix known vol with sterile nutrient broth in flask
  • stopper the flask with cotton wool to prevent air contamination
  • incubate at suitable temp and shake regularly to aerate the broth
38
Q

how do you inoculate agar?

A
  • sterilise inoculation loop by holding over bunsen flame until red hot and dont allow it to touch any surface
  • dip loop in bacterial suspension
  • remove petri dish lid and zigzag across agar
  • tape lid down but not completely as to allow the dish to be aerated
  • incubate at appropriate temp
39
Q

what are the 4 stages of bacterial growth?

A
  • lag phase while the bacteria adapt to new environment and produce enzymes
  • log phase where reproduction rates are at theoretical maximum
  • stationary phase as nutrients run out and fission is happening at the same rate as death
  • decline phase where they can no longer reproduce
40
Q

what are the limiting factors of microorganism reproduction?

A
  • temp
  • pH
  • nutrient availability
  • oxygen levels
  • waste build up
41
Q

what is batch culture?

A
  • nutrients only added at the start
  • slower growth rates due to more limiting factors
  • easy to set up and maintain
  • quality varies between batches
  • useful if only a small amount of product is required at a time
42
Q

what is continuous culture?

A
  • nutrients added continuously
  • products constantly removed
  • difficult and expensive to maintain conditions
  • contamination means you must restart
  • efficient use of time as dont have to always set it up
  • consistent product quality
43
Q

what are primary metabolites and examples?

A

products of metabolic processes that are essential to the life of the microbe eg. ethanol in anaerobic resp, amino acids, enzymes

44
Q

what are secondary metabolites and examples?

A

products not directly involved in growth and reproduction eg. fungi producing penicillin

45
Q

what are the advantages of isolated enzymes?

A
  • less waste
  • more efficient ( works at higher concs, and has optimum conditions)
  • more specific (no unwanted enzymes)
  • only products are produced
46
Q

what are the benefits of using extracellular enzymes for isolated enzymes?

A
  • they are secreted so easier to access
  • few produced than intracellular so easier to find and identify
  • can withstand external condition changes
47
Q

what are the advantages of using immobilised enzymes over isolated ones?

A
  • they can be reused
  • easy to separate from substrates
  • more reliable
  • greater temperature tolerance
48
Q

what are the disadvantages of immobilised enzymes?

A
  • reduced efficiency as immobilising enzymes reduces its activity rate
  • higher costs as isolated enzymes are free, and specific bioreactor is expensive
49
Q

what are the ways of immobilising enzymes?

A
  • adsorption to inorganic carriers ie. cellulose
  • covalent bonding to inorganic support
  • entrapment in matrix
  • encapsulation in semi permeable membrane
50
Q

what are some examples of immobilised enzymes?

A
  • glucose isomerase
  • lactase
  • penicillin acylase
  • amino acylase
  • glucoacylase

genetics, evolution and ecosystems (6 decks)

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