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genetics, evolution and ecosystems > cloning and biotech > Flashcards

cloning and biotech Flashcards

1
Q

what is vegetative propagation?

A

natural cloning of plants which involves perennating organ and asexual reproduction

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2
Q

what are the different ways of natural plant cloning?

A

stem tubers eg potatoes
- becomes swollen with food and become tubers which develop buds and roots
runners eg strawberries
- side stem runs long the soil and where it touches it plants itself
rhizomes eg marram grass
- underground horizontal stem which develops vertical shoots

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3
Q

what are the advantages of using plant cuttings instead of seeds?

A

faster and identical to plant so useful if it has a favourable trait

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4
Q

what is micropropagation?

A

uses cuttings to produce many plant clones from a single parent plant

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5
Q

when is micropropagation used?

A
  • plant doesnt produce seeds or respond well to cloning
  • rare or genetically modified
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6
Q

what are the basic principles of micropropagation and tissue cultures?

A
  • take a small sample of meristem in sterile conditions
  • place in a nutrient medium to encourage mitosis
  • this produces a callus which is divided into individual cells and each transferred to a different hormone medium
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7
Q

what is a callus?

A

mass of undifferentiated cells

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8
Q

what are 4 invertebrates that clone naturally?

A
  • starfish
  • flatworms
  • hydra
  • insects
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9
Q

how do starfish clone?

A

fragments of limbs break off and generate a new organism

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10
Q

how do flatworms clone?

A

fragments break off and generate a new organism

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11
Q

how do hydra clone?

A

form small buds on their side which produce clones

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12
Q

how do insects clone?

A

parthenogenesis

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13
Q

why are clones of animals not technically exact copies?

A

mitochondrial DNA from the enucleated egg cell with DNA of original clone

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14
Q

why do monozygotic twins appear different when born?

A

different position and nutrients

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15
Q

why is cloning a vertebrate more complex?

A
  • dont naturally clone
  • more complex organisms
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16
Q

why are artificial clones of animals made?

A
  • farming eg max milk production
  • pharming-used for medicine
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17
Q

what is the method for artificial embryo splitting?

A
  • cow is super ovulated and creates optimum conditions for fertilisation
  • artificial or natural insemination occurs and a zygote is created
  • zygote divides into an embryo which is then removed from the uterus
  • split to form several embryos which are all inserted into surrogate mothers and they give birth to identical cows
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18
Q

how would an egg be obtained for artificial embryo splitting?

A
  • superovulation
  • treated with FSH and LH
  • washed out of oviduct
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19
Q

why is artificial embryo splitting beneficial for endangered species?

A
  • increases rate of reproduciton
  • doesnt require fertile female
  • female isnt at risk
  • successful embryo can be divided
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20
Q

what are 3 ways to make a gene bank?

A
  • sperm bank
  • oocytes
  • embryos
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21
Q

advs and disadvs of tissue culture method

A

advs
- can make many plants
- genetically identical
- desired characteristics
disadvs
- more susceptible to being wiped out by disease
-reduced gene pool so less genetic diversity

22
Q

what is scnt?

A

somatic cell nuclear transfer

23
Q

what is the method of scnt?

A
  • remove nucleus of adult somatic cell
  • remove nucleus of egg cell
  • nucleus from somatic cell is added to the egg and given a mild electric shock so it fuses and divides (electrofusion)
  • embryo is placed into the uterus of a different animal of the same species and grows to term
  • a clone of the animal which the somatic cell nucleus is from is created
24
Q

what is the problem with scnt?

A

the clone is the same age as the somatic cell which means the animal wont live as long

25
what are the arguments that support scnt?
- high yielding animals can produce more offspring than natural reproduction - clone rare or endangered species
26
what are the arguments against scnt?
- inefficient as it can take many eggs to produce an offspring - embryos dont develop resulting in miscarriage or malformed offspring - shortened lifespan
27
what is biotechnology?
applying biological organisms or enzymes to develop or produce useful products
28
why are microorganisms used in biotechnology?
- no welfare issues (not murder or exploitation to use them) - large range of microorganisms that can do different things eg. differences in chemical synthesis - very short life cycle and rapid growth rate given optimum conditions - can GM them with no ethical dilemmas
29
what are two different types of food production?
indirect - microbe acting on other foods (bread, cheese, yoghurt) direct - you eat the microbe (mycoprotein in quorn)
30
what are the disadvantages to using microorganisms in food production?
- some produce toxins if optimum conditions arent maintained - difficult to separate microorganisms from the product - some people don't condone genetic modification
31
why is an air filter used on a fermenter?
remove other pathogens and only allowing oxygen for respiration
32
why is a water jacket necessary on a fermenter?
respiration is exothermic and releases energy and disrupts optimum temp so water regulates it
33
why is a vent needed on a fermenter?
release waste gases so pressure doesnt build up
34
why are impellers needed on a fermenter?
continuous stirring so microbes dont sink to the bottom and die
35
what is bioremediation?
using microorganisms to break down pollutants and contaminants in soil or water
36
what are the two approaches to bioremediation?
- natural organisms added to oil spills to break them down and neutralise them - GM organisms that are created to break down specific substances they wouldnt usually encounter eg. mercury
37
how do you inoculate broth?
- make suspension of bacteria to be grown - mix known vol with sterile nutrient broth in flask - stopper the flask with cotton wool to prevent air contamination - incubate at suitable temp and shake regularly to aerate the broth
38
how do you inoculate agar?
- sterilise inoculation loop by holding over bunsen flame until red hot and dont allow it to touch any surface - dip loop in bacterial suspension - remove petri dish lid and zigzag across agar - tape lid down but not completely as to allow the dish to be aerated - incubate at appropriate temp
39
what are the 4 stages of bacterial growth?
- lag phase while the bacteria adapt to new environment and produce enzymes - log phase where reproduction rates are at theoretical maximum - stationary phase as nutrients run out and fission is happening at the same rate as death - decline phase where they can no longer reproduce
40
what are the limiting factors of microorganism reproduction?
- temp - pH - nutrient availability - oxygen levels - waste build up
41
what is batch culture?
- nutrients only added at the start - slower growth rates due to more limiting factors - easy to set up and maintain - quality varies between batches - useful if only a small amount of product is required at a time
42
what is continuous culture?
- nutrients added continuously - products constantly removed - difficult and expensive to maintain conditions - contamination means you must restart - efficient use of time as dont have to always set it up - consistent product quality
43
what are primary metabolites and examples?
products of metabolic processes that are essential to the life of the microbe eg. ethanol in anaerobic resp, amino acids, enzymes
44
what are secondary metabolites and examples?
products not directly involved in growth and reproduction eg. fungi producing penicillin
45
what are the advantages of isolated enzymes?
- less waste - more efficient ( works at higher concs, and has optimum conditions) - more specific (no unwanted enzymes) - only products are produced
46
what are the benefits of using extracellular enzymes for isolated enzymes?
- they are secreted so easier to access - few produced than intracellular so easier to find and identify - can withstand external condition changes
47
what are the advantages of using immobilised enzymes over isolated ones?
- they can be reused - easy to separate from substrates - more reliable - greater temperature tolerance
48
what are the disadvantages of immobilised enzymes?
- reduced efficiency as immobilising enzymes reduces its activity rate - higher costs as isolated enzymes are free, and specific bioreactor is expensive
49
what are the ways of immobilising enzymes?
- adsorption to inorganic carriers ie. cellulose - covalent bonding to inorganic support - entrapment in matrix - encapsulation in semi permeable membrane
50
what are some examples of immobilised enzymes?
- glucose isomerase - lactase - penicillin acylase - amino acylase - glucoacylase

genetics, evolution and ecosystems (6 decks)

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