CLOA Learning Outcomes Flashcards
Outline principles that define the cognitive level of analysis.
- Mental processes can and should be studied scientifically.
- Mental representations, called schemas, guide behaviour.
Explain how the principles that define the cognitive level of analysis may be demonstrated in research (that is, theories and/or studies)
- Mental processes can and should be studied scientifically.
- Use of brain scanning technology
- Laboratory experiments: LeDoux - Mental representations, called schemas, guide behaviour.
- Bartlett 1932, Brewer and Treyens 1981
Discuss how and why particular research methods are used at the cognitive level of analysis.
Qualitative research methods:
Discuss ethical considerations related to research studies at the cognitive level of analysis.
H.M
LeDoux and rats
Speisman et al.
Evaluate schema theory with reference to research studies.
Schemas are mental representations that humans use to make sense of the world.
It is one theory on how knowledge is organized.
-New information is rarely new: everything is already in our mind as schemas, which then guide how to behave, think or see situations and things.
Bartlett 1932: Schemas organize past experiences. Different kinds of schemas:
- Scripts: how to behave in familiar situations
- Self-schemas: how do we see ourselves, our strengths, weaknesses
- Social-schemas: stereotypes
According to theory schemas: -organize information -regulate behaviour -are resistant to change -generation of expectations Lead to mistakes when -settings are unfamiliar -wrong schemas are activated
Studied by Bartlett 1932, “the war of the ghosts”
Brewer and Trevens 1981, the office schemas.
Bransford and Johnson 1972
Loftus and Palmer 1974
Strengths of schema theory:
Useful in explaining cognitive processes, such as memory, perception, reasoning
can explain reconstructive nature of memory, gender identity, cultural differences, stereotypes
Limitations of schema theory:
Vague concept, too vague to be useful argued by some. No information where they are acquired from in the first place.
Evaluate two models or theories of one cognitive process with reference to research studies.
Cognitive process: memory
1st model: Multistore model of memory (MSM)
by Atkinson and Shriffin 1968
Three types of memory stores:
-Sensory store
Iconic and echoic memory: all the information received lasts only for 1-4 seconds. It needs attention to be moved to:
-Short-term store (STS)
Lasts up until 30 seconds, seven units at a time. It needs rehearsal to be transformed to:
-Long-term store (STS)
It has unlimited capacity, but the units have to be rehearsed.
Studies by:
Peterson and Peterson (1959)
Glanzer and Cunitz (1966)
Serial position curve and primary and recency effects
Evaluation of MSM:
Universally accepted that there are memory stores.
However, a bit simplistic view.
Case studies HM
Does not take into account the nature of the information and emotion: Flashbulb memory
Second theory on memory:
Levels of processing by Craik and Lockhart (1972)
Criticized MSM. Doesn’t consider
Levels of processing: -Structural -Phonological -Semantic Depth of processing increases when the levels are gone from structural to semantic. The deeper the level, the longer the memory trace. Studies: -Craik and Tulving 1975 -Tyler et al. 1979
Evaluation of LOP:
It is quite often recognized that there are deeper levels of processing.
However, the LOP does not answer how it works, it is more like a description.
Applicability to other things, not just words?
Does not address retrieval
Craik and Lockhart accepted it is too simplistic.
LOP and MSM have been the pioneers of modern memory research, but are often regarded as too simplistic. Nowadays theories concentrate on highly sophisticated and detailed processes of encoding and retrieval stages of memory.
With reference to relevant research studies, to what extend is one cognitive process reliable.
The reliability of memory has been extensively studied in the context of eye-witness memory.
Memory is a reconstruction, according to schema theory. Bartlett and Loftus are some of the key names in reliability of memory.
Bartlett’s theory of reconstructive memory:
The reconstructive nature of memory caused by schemas could explain memory distortions.
schemas are reconstructions, explains and is supported by Loftus. But not much information on schemas.
Bartlett 1932, the war of the ghosts.
Brewer and Treyens (1981)
Loftus studied especially eye-witness theory, based on Bartlett’s ideas about reconstruction of memories.
Loftus and Palmer, 1974 A and B
Also, weapons effect:
Loftus et al. 1987
Discuss the use of technology in investigating cognitive processes.
MRI scans -HM and Maguire et al. 2000 PET -Tierney et al 2001 fMRI -Brefczynski-Lewis et al. 2007
DEFINE THE COGNITIVE PROCESS THAT IS INVESTIGATED!
Strengths:
no other way to find out some things.
Has advanced research in cognition.
Important information
Limitations:
Have to be still, limits the kind of activities possible during scans.
Explain how biological factors may affect one cognitive process.
HM: the effect of biological factors on memory.
the medial temporal lobes and hippocampus seem to play an important role in moving memories from STS to LTS.
However, it seems that medial temporal lobes and hippocampus do not store long term memories, as H.M. could access some of them.
The fact that some memories are lost and some aren’t indicate that there are multiple different memory stores in the brain, with different functions.
Also, Martinez and Kesner and the effect of
Acetylcholide on memory. It is important for learning.
Also, the case study of Clive Wearing
- Suffered damage in Hippocampus due to a contraction of a virus
- extensive brain damage (parts of his temporal lobes).
- Retrograde and Anterograde amnesia.
- MRI scanning show damage to the hippocampus and some of frontal regions.
- Episodic memory and some of his semantic memory are lost.
- He can still play piano, conduct music and remember his wife.
- He still has his implicit memory including his emotional memory for his wife.
Ecological validity: High, study of a real life case.
Low potential ability to generalise because cases are individual.
Ethics: Patient’s name was disclosed under consent.
-Hippocampus – responsible for encoding and transferral of STM into LTM.
When damaged:
-Incapable of creating new long lasting memory (Anterograde amnesia)
-Incapable of retrieving LTM (Retrograde amnesia)
-Only affected 2 of 4 types of LTM
Episodic (Affected)
Semantic (Affected)
Explicit memory (not affected)
Implicit memory (not affected)
Still has the capability to play piano showing that his procedural memory was not lost. (Procedural memory)
Memories of wife. (Emotional memory)
Many biological effects on memory.
Discuss how social or cultural factors affect one cognitive process.
Culture and social environment affects the cognitive processes, such as memory, thinking and problem-solving. Memory is discussed.
Memory
Bartlett 1932: memory is affected by culture: it reconstructs to make things more familiar: canoe/boat, hunting seals/fishing
Also, social effect on memory: Brewer and Treyens 1981
-False memories on things that are expected to be found from an office
Western bias in memory tests when the testing was done for western participants.
Nowadays cross-cultural research takes this into account.
- Cole and Scribner 1974
- The effect of culture and schooling on memory.
FBM: Brown and Kulik 1977: Martin Luther King’s assassination was remembered better by black participants
Conway et al. 1995: UK residents remembered Thatcher’s resignation much better after 11 months than non-uk people
To what extent do cognitive and biological factors interact in emotion?
There are many theories:
Debate on whether the physiological responses, such as flight and fight response and adrenaline create emotions,
or
the cognitive emotional state creates the physiological effects.
Lazarus 1975
The Appraisal theory
Cognitive factors modulate the emotional response.
-The primary appraisal:
whether a situation is personally relevant or not.
-The secondary appraisal
Support: Speisman et al 1964
-Maybe the situation itself doesn’t create emotions, but the personal evaluation of it does.
Schachter and Singer:
Two factor theory of appraisal
-two factors interact to create specific emotions:
physiological arousal and the emotional interpretation and labelling of the physiological arousal.
Support by Schachter and Singer.
Ledoux theory on the emotional brain
- Emotional reactions are flexible due to evolution
- It is important to detect danger and feel fear for survival
- Human’s have created an emotional “feeling” to that helps to evaluate the level of danger before a response
According to Ledoux (1999) there are two possible routes:
1) the short route: from thalamus to amygdala
- The Amygdala reacts immediately to a sensory stimulus, creating a response eg. the fight and flight response
2) the long route:
- The sensory input goes from thalamus through the neocortex to the hippocampus where it is evaluated and an appropriate reaction is decided.
- –> this could be a link to Lazarus’ cognitive appraisal theory
Support by LeDoux rat experiment
Evaluate one theory of how emotion may affect one cognitive process.
Flashbulb memory
Brown and Kulik 1977:
The circumstances when one hears about a surprising of a shocking thing forms a flashbulb memory.
However, it is not a memory of the news, but a memory of the situation when it is heard.
Emotion is the main thing that causes the flashbulb memory.
It creates the memory of situations because of the highly emotional situation. They are stored in a special memory store. They are remembered because they are rehearsed either overtly or covertly. Differ from other memories: more vivid, last longer, more accurate and consistent.
Study: Brown and Kulik 1977
Conway et al. 1995
Criticism:
Neisser and Harsch 1992
