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psyc1001 > Clinical Perspectives and Social > Flashcards

Clinical Perspectives and Social Flashcards

1
Q

What are the key aspects of psychology that make it a science?

A

Empirical measurements
Scientific method
Experimental control

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2
Q

What are the statistics for the occurrence of PTSD?

A

10-20% survivors

4% Australians

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3
Q

Define PSTD

A

Anxiety disorder affecting the memory. Victims experience distinctive, vivid reexperiences of memories (referred to as ‘flashbacks’). These are often brought on by triggers (place, smell, sound)

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4
Q

What is usually done to minimise PTSD?

A

Psychological debriefing has been the standard practice for 30 years. It is conducted within 48 hours of traumatic event. It is believed that talking about the event will decrease the likelihood of PSTD.
Eg: $90 mill donated to trauma debriefing after 9/11

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5
Q

What are the aspects of the scientific method which show debriefing doesn’t work?

A

Measurement - must happen before and after treatment
Comparison condition - must have a control
Controlling for bias - randomisation
Experimenter/assessment bias - assessments are conducted blind
Double blind studies
Replication and peer review
Quality checks

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6
Q

Give and example of debriefing trials

A

Often occurs in regions of crisis. A study in Peshawar (Pakistan) with 60% from war trauma, 20% from natural disasters.
They must be random, blind assessments, strict protocols, standardised assessments and checks that interventions are valid

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7
Q

What is Classical Conditioning?

A

Process used to cause organisms to associate a certain stimuli with an emotion/sensation

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8
Q

Identify the scientific techniques used to disqualify psychological debriefing

A

Measurement: measured patients before and after treatment.
Controlling for bias: randomisation
Experimenter bias: assessments were made blind
Double blind studies
Comparison condition: need for a control
Replication and peer review
Quality check made by third party

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9
Q

Define Classical Conditioning

A

Process by which an individual learns to associate a particular stimuli with an emotion/sensation

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10
Q

Describe classical conditioning experiments using rats

A

Rats were given an electric shock whilst a light was turned on. Rat associated light with pain so when light was turned on, even when there was no shock, the rat was afraid. However, over time the rat began to learn that the light is a sign of safety (extinction learning) as it no longer experiences the pain.

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11
Q

Give modern day example of classical conditioning

A

Training firefighters were given electric shocks when exposed to certain colours. They then measured how long it took for them to learn that the colours were not associated with harm. After four years, they remeasured the firefighters and found that those that were initially poor at extinction learning had PTSD

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12
Q

What is exposure therapy?

A

Reintroducing a patient to triggers of PTSD in a safe way (often through talk therapy) in order to change their perception of the world

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13
Q

What is the amygdala?

A

Region of the brain responsible for fear conditioning - is particularly active in PTSD (association between event and triggers)

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14
Q

What is the MPFC and what does it do?

A

Region of the brain that inhibits the activity of the amygdala. Used for extinction learning. During PTSD, this region is less active.

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15
Q

What is glutamate and what does it do in the brain?

A

Glutamate is a major excitatory neurotransmitter. Studies show that it is linked to extinction learning. When glutamate is given before a trauma, individuals are better at extinction learning.
Anxiety therapy also uses glutamate to improve results in exposure therapy.

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16
Q

What proportion of people successfully respond to exposure therapy?

A

2/3

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17
Q

What are the four goals of scientific psychology?

A

Description, prediction, identify/explain and facilitate treatment.

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18
Q

What are the important aspects of scientific psychology?

A

Objective data collection through empirical testing
Systematic observation through isolation and manipulation of variables
Reliance on evidece to formulate theories

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19
Q

What is change blindness?

A

Individuals are not good at observing things we are not looking for. We are less likely to notice changes we are not expecting.

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20
Q

What percentage of people did Milgram and behavioural psychologists believe would administer the lethal shock

A

2%

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21
Q

What percentage of people actually administered the lethal shock in Milgram’s studies?

A

65%

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22
Q

Describe the ‘Introspection’ movement

A

Introduced by Wilhelm Wundt (and Leipzig). They trained observers to report on their own consciousness (phenomenology) under different conditions. It focusses at looking inwards. Movement failed as it was unreliable.

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23
Q

Describe the ‘functionalism’ movement

A

Introduced by William James who studied psychological processes in terms of function and tried to develop definitions of psychological terms. It is consistent with the evolutionary framework. Functionalism focusses on identifying the rules/steps of behaviour, rather than the underlying mechanism.
Jerry Fodor believed this system could be used for software development.

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24
Q

Describe the ‘behaviourism’ movement

A

Early challenge to introspection (Nth America: 1900-1950). Believed that only observable behaviours could be scientifically and empirically measured. Radical behaviourism was lead by B.F. Skinner and John Watson. They belied that ‘internal states’ are not observable so cannot be studied.
Psychoanalysis also challenged introspection. He argued that some behaviours are unconscious.

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25
Q

What is the role of studying psychological processes in the brain?

A

Studying brain processes can only support an understanding of psychological processes; it can’t explain them.

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26
Q

Who is considered the ‘father’ of social psychology

A

Gordon Allport

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27
Q

How did Allport define Social Psyc

A

“how thoughts, feelings and behaviours are influenced by the actual or implied presence of others.”

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28
Q

What is the aim of social psychology?

A

To study how affect, cognition and behaviour interact at different levels by studying the interaction between situational and personal influences

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29
Q

Distinguish between situational and personal influences

A

Situational: external factors
Personal: internal factors

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30
Q

What are the different levels that social psychology studies?

A

Individuals
Dyads
Group
Society

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31
Q

Define: loneliness

A

The mental sense of that social needs are not met. Can lead to an increased risk in health issues.

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32
Q

What are the limitations of common sense?

A

Cannot distinguish between causality and coincidence, unfalsifiable and retrospective.

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33
Q

What are the steps of the scientific method

A

Observation - Theory - Prediction - Research design - Data collection - analyse and revise theory

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34
Q

According to social psychology what are the essential components of science?

A

Accuracy, Objectivity, Skepticism and open-mindedness

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35
Q

Describe the two different types of research methods in social psychology

A
  1. Descriptive Methods (studies that what and when). They study ABC in their natural state with little interaction. Can be either naturalistic observations, archival studies or surveys.
  2. Experimental Methods (studies the why/how). Study social processes by isolating and manipulating key variables to determine causality. Can be either a field experiment or a laboratory experiment.
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36
Q

Describe first impressions and the influential factors

A

First impressions are lasting and are based on limited information (0.1 secs).
Influenced by facial cues (baby facedness, familiarity, emotional resemblance and fitness), demographics and behaviour.

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37
Q

What are Internal dispositions?

A

Personal tendencies

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38
Q

What are external situations?

A

Environmental influences in behaviour

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39
Q

What did Herald Kelly suggest we consider when making attributions?

A

Consistency: how frequently they do it
Consensus: do others do it?
Distinctiveness: do they do it only in this situation

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40
Q

Describe FAE

A

Fundamental Attribution Error (Correspondence Bias) is when we make dispositions from situationally induced situations. Occurs when the focus is on the other person

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41
Q

What is Gilbert’s theory is relation to the attribution process?

A

There are many occasions in the process of making an attribution that we make and error:
Situation perception, behaviour expectation, behaviour perception and attribution

42
Q

What are the three reasons that attributions are not fixed?

A

The are economical: we just attribute negative behaviours to the person (there is nothing we can do)
They do not necessarily have bad consequences
They give us a sense of control/understanding of the world.

43
Q

What is the AOE

A

Actor Observer effect: when we attribute the actions of ourselves to external situations and the behaviours of others as personal dispositions.

44
Q

Define: stereotype

A

The cognitive response to a generalisation made about a group of people, regardless of whether all member of the group carry those generalised characteristics

45
Q

Define: prejudice

A

The affective response to a stereotype

46
Q

Define: discrimination

A

The behavioural response to a stereotype. They are unjustified and negative.

47
Q

How to stereotypes and attributions relate?

A

Attributions often maintain stereotypes over time. When we encounter a situation that challenges our stereotype, we make situational attributions to account for it, allowing our stereotype to maintain.

48
Q

What is a self-fulfilling prophecy?

A

When our beliefs/values/expectations create reality by influencing our or other’s behaviour.
Rosenthal and Fode: ‘maze bright’ rats
Rosenthal and Jacobson: ‘academic bloomers’

49
Q

What is an attitude?

A

a tendency to think, feel and act a specific way towards a specific target.

50
Q

What do psychologists conduct when they want to explore attitudes?

A

Non-scientific surveys

51
Q

Under what circumstances do our affect/cognition influence our behaviours

A

When external influence is minimal, when we are aware of our beliefs and our attitude is specifically relevant to the situation.

52
Q

Recall the Wells and Petty (1980) experiment

A

Participants had to listen to a podcast about increasing university tuition whilst either nodding or shaking their heads. Those what nodded their heads were more likely to agree with the podcast (minor behaviour effects)

53
Q

Recall the Cacioppo (1993) experiment about minor behaviour effects

A

Participants studied Chinese characters whilst either pushing or pulling on a desk. Those that pulled were more likely to rate the characters higher.

54
Q

Define: embodiment

A

They way we act out psychology influences how we think/feel.

55
Q

Recite the cognitive dissonance theory

A

When we act in a way that is different to how we feel, there is an innate sense of tension (dissonance). In order to overcome this dissonance, we must change our attitude (which is relative to the amount of dissonance produced)

56
Q

Describe how we respond to dissonance

A
  1. When the reward/reason is low:
    Our behaviour is inconsistent with our beliefs, we weren’t rewarded, large amount of dissonance, large amount of attitude change
  2. When the reward/reason is high:
    Our behaviour is inconsistent with our beliefs, we were rewarded for it, small amount of dissonance, small amount of change.
    Festinger and Carlsmith (rewards - $1 or $20)
57
Q

Define: prosocial behaviour

A

Any action that is INTENDED to help others

58
Q

Recount the story of Kitty Genovese

A

March 13th 1964, Kitty was attached in Queens. She called out for help but no one answered. After 45mins, a man rang for an ambulance, but she had already passed away. Bystanders suffered ongoing impacts for not helping.

59
Q

What is Latane and Darley develop in relation to the study of prosocial behaviour

A

Developed the ‘bystander intervention’/’bystander effect’. This concept is facilitated by the ‘diffusion of responsibility’; that are the amount of people in a situation increases, the amount of responsibility felt by each person decreases.

60
Q

Recount the seizure study

A

Participants were told they were either speaking to one or more people through an intercom, when one of the individuals has a seizure. Those that believed they were the only other person in the study were more likely to get help.

61
Q

Describe Latane and Darley’s ‘Emergency Intervention Decision Tree’

A

They argued that there were five steps in a person’s decision to help, all of which errors may occur

  1. Notice the emergency: Darley and Batson ‘Good Samaritan Study’. Only 10% in hurry group noticed the emergency
  2. Perceive the emergency: Informational Social Influence illustrates that when people are uncertain about a situation, they look to others
  3. Assume responsibility: bystander effect/diffusion of responsibility
  4. Know what to people: people are more likely to help if they feel competent
  5. Decide to help: weighing the cost of helping to not helping
62
Q

Who is likely to engage in prosocial behaviour?

A

Those that help in multiple situation, those that are empathetic (emotional response to someone in need), religious people are slightly more likely, some cities (Brazil and Costa Rica).

63
Q

Who is likely to receive help?

A

Those that are not responsible for needing help, those that are similar to you.

64
Q

How is prosocial behaviour increased?

A

Exposure to prosocial entertainment and education

65
Q

What are some of the evolutionary determined characteristics of sociability

A

Community, cooperation, conformity, need or status and identity, identity appeals, gender differences

66
Q

What experiment did Triplett conduct in relation to mere presence?

A

Studied hoe long it would take a person to reel in a length of line on their own, or in the presence of others. This enabled him to develop the ‘dynamogenic factor theory’; the mere presence of others arouses a competitive instinct.

67
Q

What experiment did Tower conduct in relation to mere presence?

A

Measured how long it would take cars to travel 100 yards from a traffic light. In the presence of other cars, they travel 15x faster.

68
Q

What experiment is Bayer conduct in relation to mere presence?

A

Measured the amount of food chickens ate. Chickens ate as much food as they wanted alone, then another chicken was introduced. The initial chicken ate 2/3 more simply due to the presence of another chicken.

69
Q

What explanation did Zajonc develop in response to social facilitation and inhibition?

A

The Drive Theory: the presence of others causes an arousal that increases the likelihood of a dominant response. When the dominant response is correct, facilitation occurs, when the dominant response in incorrect, inhibition occurs.

70
Q

What are the three sources of arousal?

A

Mere presense, evaluation apprehension, distraction.

71
Q

What study in Zajonc, Heingarter and Harman conduct to examine The Drive Theory?

A

Cockroaches, found that in simple mazes, facilitation occurred, but in complex mazes, inhibition occurs.

72
Q

What study did Forgas conduct in relation to The Drive Theory

A

Studied the performance on squash players when they were watched. Better performers performed better when others were watching.

73
Q

What study in Bingleman conduct to examine social loafing.

A

When people are told they are being assessed as a group, they tend to put less effort into their performance. They measured the force exerted when pulling a rope.,

74
Q

What are the two influences on social loafing

A

Low expectancy and low instrumentality

75
Q

Define: conformity

A

Changing behaviour or beliefs in response to actual or implied social pressure. It is implicit.

76
Q

What did Le Bon and Tarde suggest in relation to conformity

A

Individuals become invisible when they become part of a crowd.

77
Q

What did Sherif study in relation to conformity?

A

Developed the ‘Auto Kinetic Effect’. He placed groups of participants in a dark room with a light. They had to guess the distance from the light. With an increase of people in the room, more people were likely to agree with the consensus.

78
Q

What did Jacobs and Campbell study in relation to conformity?

A

Extended Sherif’s experiment. He placed an initial group in the room, they made a consensus. He then replaced individuals in the group slowly until there was an entirely new group. The new group maintained the initial consensus. Once an ambiguous situation is resolved it is unlikely to be changed.

79
Q

What is normative conformity?

A

When a correct response is clear, people conform so that they do not appear as the outlier. Proven by Asch in the experiment comparing 3 lines. 35% conformed to the group.

80
Q

What is informal conformity?

A

When the response is ambiguous, people conform because they rely on others. Internalised, private acceptance. Shown by Sherif’s experiments.

81
Q

What are the factors that increase conformity?

A

Insecurity, 3+ people, admiring group, no prior opinion, culture encouragement, unanimous,

82
Q

What are the advantages of conformity?

A

Structure, predictability and shared reality

83
Q

What are the disadvantages of conformity?

A

Tyranny, loss of self, irrational behaviour

84
Q

What is some of the field research on conformity?

A

Cultural differences in Norway (more conformity) and France
Meta-analysis os line judgement in US shows decrease in conformity
Milgram street watching
Mann: bus queue, more people in queue, more people joined
Chud: marxist dogma

85
Q

Define: obedience

A

Changing behaviour to the explicit commands of a single authority figure

86
Q

Identify the two real-life versions of Milgram’s experiments

A

Hofling: posed as a doctor and asked nurses to inject a lethal dose into patients. 21/22 obeyed
Orne: asked first-years to complete maths problems and throw it away.

87
Q

Describe what happened in Milgram’s experiments when another teacher was present

A

When another person obeyed, obedience was 92%

When another person disobeyed, obedience was 10%

88
Q

Define: deindividualisation

A

When group participation results in a reduction on the normal constraints on deviant behaviour. It occurs due to a sense of anonymity, arousal and a diffusion of responsibility.
Mann conducted a study. People were more likely to encourage someone to jump off a building when others were present, it was dark and there was distance between them.

89
Q

What did Cialdini present as the 6 principles salesmen use to make someone comply

A 
Develop friendships
Consistency and commitment
Scarcity
Reciprocity
Social validation 
Authority
90
Q

What is the ‘Foot in the Door’ technique

A

When people preset you with a small, then larger offer. Studies have shown that people are more likely to put a billboard up on their lawn, when they are asked to put a sticker on their window first (Fredman and Fraser)

91
Q

What is the ‘Low-Balling’ technique?

A

Renegotiating with a person after they made the commitment. Cialdini had an increased response when he asked people to participate in a study, then asked them to come in at 7am.

92
Q

What is the ‘Door in the Face’ technique?

A

Asking a large request before a small one. Cialdini asked people to take the elderly to the zoo for two years, them two hours.

93
Q

How does social change occur?

A

Social change occurs when the minority persuades the majority to follow them. This is achieved when the minority draws attention to itself and alternative position, is committed and disrupts the social norm. The minority is consistent, in touch with other trends and relates to the majority in other ways.

94
Q

What are some of the implications of social influence?

A

Group identity is exploited, collectivist ideologies lead to conflicts, catastrophising, paradoxical outcomes.

95
Q

What are the universal features of attraction?

A
  1. Symmetry/composite faces
  2. Pupil dilation
  3. Men: signs of dominance, taller than 175cm, V shaped horse
  4. Women: cues or arousal and neotenous features.
96
Q

How does arousal influence attraction?

A

When we are aroused, we can attribute the sensation experience to the person and become attracted.
People are more likely to find someone else attractive after riding a rollercoaster.
Men on a suspension bridge are more likely to call a woman than on a sturdy bridge.

97
Q

What is the relationship between actual/perceived similarity and attraction

A

Actual similarity does not influence attraction later in a relationship
Perceived similarity influences attraction regardless of stage in relationship.

98
Q

What is the matching hypothesis?

A

People tend to be attracted to people of a similar level of physical attraction as they believe other people are ‘out of their league’.

99
Q

Recount the study done with MIT students in 1950s

A

Studied dorm buildings and found that people that were next-door neighbours were more likely to be friends that those at opposite ends of the building.

100
Q

What did a meta-analysis of marriage certificates in the 1930s find?

A

30% of couple had grown up within 5 blocks of each other

101
Q

What affect explains the Proximity Effect

A

Mere Exposure effect. What is unfamiliar is considered dangerous. As you have more experiences that are not negative, positive feelings increase.

102
Q

How does affect influence attraction?

A

Affect can either directly or indirectly influence attraction (ie. you feel things for the person, or external stimulants cause you to like the person).

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