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Classification And Evolution Flashcards

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1
Q

define classification

A

the process of placing living things into groups

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2
Q

define the binomial system

A

a system that uses the genus name and the species name to avoid confusion when naming organisms

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3
Q

why do we classify living things

A
  • its for our convenience
  • to make the study of living things more manageable
  • to make it easier to identify organisms
  • to help us see the relationships between species
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4
Q

what are the parts of the modern classification hierarchy in order

A 
domain 
kingdom 
phylum 
class
order 
family 
genus 
species
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5
Q

describe domain

A

the domain is the highest taxonomic rank , there are three domains , archeae, eubacteria , eukaryotae

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6
Q

describe kingdom

A

traditionally there are 5 main kingdoms, plantae , Animalia , fungi, protoctista are all eukaryotes, which possess a nucleus. all those single celled organisms that do not possess a nucleus are grouped into the kingdom of prokaryotae

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7
Q

describe phylum

A

a major subdivision of the kingdom. a phylum contains all the groups of organisms that have the body plan eg possession of a backbone

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8
Q

describe class

A

a group of organisms that all possess the same general traits eg the same number of legs

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9
Q

describe order

A

a subdivision of the class using additional information about the organisms eg the class mammal is divided into meat eating animals (order carnivores) and vegetation eating animals ( order herbivore)essentiall

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10
Q

describe family

A

a group of closely related genera eg within the order carnivore we might recognise the dog family and the cat family

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11
Q

describe genus

A

a group of closely related species

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12
Q

describe species

A

the basic unit of classification. all members of a species show some variations but all are essentially the same

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13
Q

at the higher levels of this ranked classification system, the differences between that organisms can be …

A

very great

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14
Q

in homo sapiens which part is the genus and what part is the species

A

genus - homo

species - sapiens

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15
Q

describe the binomial naming system

and how you write each part of the name

A

binomial means 2 names. in the binomial system of naming organisms ,the genus and the species are used

the genus name is always given an upper case first letter. - often written in italics or if handwritten its underlined

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16
Q

when referring to the binomial naming system, using a common name does not work well because

A
  • the same organism may have a completely different common name in different parts of the world
  • different common names are used in different countries
  • translation of language or dialect may give different names
  • the same common name may be used for different species in other parts of the world
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17
Q

definition of a species

A

a group of organisms that can freely interbreed to produce fertile offspring

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18
Q

a phylogenetic definition of a species is

A

a group of individual organisms that have a very similar in appearance, anatomy , physiology, biochemistry and genetics

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19
Q

aristole first classified organisms into 2 categories, which were…

he then adapted this into 3 groups which were….

these were all based on …..

A

plant or animal

  • live and move in water
  • live and move on land
  • move through the air

based on similarities that he observed

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20
Q

what are the five kingdoms of classification

A
  • prokaryotae
  • protocista
  • fungi
  • plantae
  • Animalia
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21
Q

describe prokaryotae

A
  • have no nucleus
  • have loops of DNA that is not arranged in linear chromosomes
  • have naked DNA
  • have no membrane bound organelles
  • have smaller ribosomes than in other groups
  • have cells smaller than those of eukaryotic
  • may be free living or parasitic
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22
Q

describe protocista

A
  • are eukaryotic
  • are mostly single celled
  • show a wide variety of forms
  • shows various plant like or animal like features
  • are mostly free living
  • have an autotrophic or heterotrophic nutrition , some photosynthesis , some ingest prey , some food using extracellular enzymes , and some are parasites
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23
Q

describe fungi

A
  • are eukaryotic
  • can exist as single cells or they have a mycelium that consists of hyphae
  • have walls made of chitin
  • have cytoplasm that is multinucleate
  • are mostly free living and saprophytic
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24
Q

prokaryotae example

A

bacteria

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25
Q

protoctista example

A

paramecium

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26
Q

fungi example

A

fungus on an orange

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27
Q

plantae example

A

bean seedling

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28
Q

Animalia example

A

frog

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29
Q

describe plantae

A
  • are eukaryotic
  • are multicellular
  • have cells surrounded by a cellulose cell wall
  • are autotrophic
  • contains chlorophyll
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30
Q

describe Animalia

A
  • are eukaryotic
  • are multicellular
  • heterotrophic
  • are usually able to move around
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31
Q

describe how biological molecules are used in classification

A

evidence from biological molecules can help to determine how closely related one species is to another. certain large biological molecules are found in all living things, although they may not be identical in every species. these are the molecules that are involved in the most fundamental characteristics of life, such as respiration and protein synthesis . if we assume that the earliest living things all had identical versions of these molecules , then the differences seen today are the result of evolution .

two organisms with similar molecules will be closely related ,as they have not evolved separately for long . two organisms with very different versions of the molecule are less closely related ,as they have evolved separately for longer

the difference between these molecules in different species reflect the evolutionary relationship.

32
Q

describe convergent evolution

A

when organisms adapt to their environment , it is possible that two unrelated species could adapt in similar ways and therefore look very similar

33
Q

describe how cytochrome c is used as evidence used in classification

A

a protein called cytochrome c is used in the process of respiration. all living organisms that respire must have cytochrome c . but cytochrome c is not identical in all species . proteins are larger molecules made from a chain of smaller units called amino acids . the amino acids in cytochrome c can be identified . if we compare the sequence of amino acids in samples of cytochrome c from two different species , then we can draw a conclusion

  • if the sequence are the same , the two species must be closely related
  • if the sequence are different , the two species are not closely related
  • the more differences found between the sequences , the less closely related the two species
34
Q

describe how DNA is used as evidence in classification

A

-another biological molecules that is found in all living organisms is DNA. DNA provides the genetic code - the instructions for producing proteins. the code is the same for all organism - it is universal. this means that a particular sequence of DNA codes for the same sequences of amino acids in a bacterium as in any other organism

changes to the sequence are called mutations . mutations occur at random . comparison of DNA sequences provides another way to classify species. the more similar the sequence in a part of the DNA , the more closely related the two species . if there are many differences, the species have evolved separately for a long time , and they can be considered as less closely related . this is probably the most accurate way to demonstrate how closely related one species is to another

35
Q

describe the three domain classification

A

in 1990 carl woese suggested a new classification system. he based his ideas on detailed study of the ribosomal RNA gene. he divided the kingdom prokaryotae into two groups , the bacteria and the archeaea , this division is based on the fact that the bacteria are fundamentally different from the archaea and the eukaryotae

bacteria
archaea
eukaryotae

36
Q

three domain classification

archaea share certain features with eukaryotes which include

A
  • similar enzymes for synthesising RNA
  • similar mechanisms for DNA replication and synthesing RNA
  • production of some proteins that bind to their DNA
37
Q

three domain classification

some structural differences include the fact that bacteria have

A
  • a different cell membrane structure
  • flagella with a different internal structure
  • different enzymes for synthesising RNA
  • no proteins bound to their genetic material
  • different mechanisms for DNA replication and for synthesising RNA
38
Q

define phylogeny

A

the study of the evolutionary relationships between organisms . it involves studying how closely different species are related , using evolutionary or phylogenetic trees we can see certain evolutionary relationships that indicate how closely related the species are

39
Q

characteristics of artificial classification

A
  • based on only a few characteristics
  • does not effect any evolutionary relationships
  • provides limited information
  • is stable
40
Q

natural classification characteristics

A
  • uses many characteristics
  • reflects evolutionary relationships
  • provides a lot of useful information
  • may change with advancing knowledge
41
Q

define natural selection

A

the term used to explain how features of the environment apply a selective force on the reproduction of individuals in a population

42
Q

from observation to theory

Darwin made four observation

A
  • offspring generally appear similar to their parents
  • no two individuals are identical
  • organisms have the ability to produce large numbers of offspring
  • populations in nature tend to remain fairly stable in size
43
Q

darwins conclusions can be summarised as following

A
  • there is a struggle to survive
  • better adapted individuals survive and pass on their characteristics
  • over time a number of changes may give rise to a new species
44
Q

what is the evidence for evolution

A

fossil evidence

biological molecules

45
Q

describe the fossil evidence for evolution

A

fossils have shown a number of interesting facts

  • in the past the world was inhibited by species that were different from those present today
  • old species have dies out and new species have arisen
  • the new species that have appeared are often similar to the older ones found in the same place

Darwin was fascinated by the similarities that he found between species living today and fossil species. he began to understand that fossils species gave rise to more modern species and he felt that this must be because the more modern species had variations that meant they were better adapted to the environment . Darwin

46
Q

describe the biological molecules for evidence for evolution

A
  • the fact that certain molecules are found throughout the living world is evidence in itself . if one species gives rise to another , both are likely to have the same biological molecules. this suggests that all species arose from one original ancestor
  • two closely related species will have separated only relatively recently, their biological molecules are likely to be identical or very similar
  • in species that took separate evolutionary paths a long time ago , their biological molecules are likely to differ more
  • evidence from molecules such as cytochrome c and other proteins shows this pattern of change

the structure of DNA can be used In a similar to that of cytochrome c . genes can be compared by sequencing the bases in the DNA. the greater the number pf similarities between the gene sequences , the more closely related the species are and the more recent evolution - vice versa

47
Q

define variation

A

the presence of differences between individuals

48
Q

define intraspecific variation

A

the variation between members of the same species eg eye colour, hair colour, skin colour

the greater the genetic diversity of a species , the greater the intraspecific variation

49
Q

define interspecific variation

A

the differences between species

50
Q

what are the two forms of variation

A

continuous and discontinuous

51
Q

describe continuous variation

A

is where there are two extremes and a full range of intermediate values between those extremes . most individuals are close to the mean value. the number of individuals at the extreme is low , continuous variation is often regulated by more than one gene and can be influences by the environment in which the organism lives

best shown on histogram

52
Q

examples of continuous variation includes

A
  • height in humans
  • length of leaves on an oak tree
  • length of stalk of a toadstool
  • number of flagella on a bacterium
53
Q

describe discontinuous variation

A

is where there are two or more distinct categories with no intermediate values the members of a species may be evenly distributed between the different forms , or there may be may be more of one type than the other. discontinuous variation is usually regulated by a single gene and is not influenced by the environment In which an organism lives

can be shown on a bar chart

54
Q

examples of discontinuous variation

A

gender
some bacteria have flagella others don’t
human blood group

55
Q

what are the two types of variation

A

genetic and environmental

56
Q

describe inherited / genetic variation

A

the genes we inherit form our parents provide information that is used to define our characteristics . the combination of alleles that we inherit is not the same as that in any other living things . we may share alleles with other members of our species and we share genes with members of other species , however there is never a complete match .

57
Q

describe environmental variation

A

many characteristics can be effected by the environment , eg an overfed pet will become obese, a persons skin will tan if exposed to sun.

58
Q

define genetic variation

A

variation caused by possessing a different combination of alleles

59
Q

define environmental variation

A

variation caused by response to environmental factors such as light intensity

60
Q

standard variation is a measure of

A

variation , it measures the amount of variation or spread from the mean

61
Q

a low standard deviation indicates

A

that the data have a narrow range and the points are closely grouped to the mean . this could indicate greater reliability

62
Q

a high standard deviation indicates

A

that the data points have a larger range and are less well grouped ,this might indicate lower reliability

63
Q

calculation for standard deviation

A

s= √ E(x- x~)2 / n-1

s= SD
x = individual value 
x~ = mean value 
n= number of data points
64
Q

the students t test is used to …

A

compare two mean . it will test weather the difference between the two means is a significant difference - tests whether to accept or reject the hypothesis

65
Q

how to calculate the degrees of freedom

A

sample size - the number of data sets

66
Q

define adaptation

A

a characteristic that enhances survival in the habitat

67
Q

a well adapted organism will be able to

A
  • find enough food or photosynthesise well
  • find enough water
  • gather enough nutrients
  • defend itself from predators and disease
  • survive the physical conditions of its environment such as changes in temperature , light and water availability
  • respond to changes in its environment
  • have sufficient energy to allow successful reproduction
68
Q

adaptations can work in different ways , what are the 3 different types

A

anatomical
behavioural
physiological

69
Q

define anatomical adaptations

A

any structure that enhances the survival of the organisms

70
Q

marram grass adaptations and how it works

A

long roots - this enables the plant to reach water that is deep underground

roots spread out over a wide area- the enables marram to absorb a lot of water when it is available . it also helps to stabilise the sand dunes in which the plant lives

leaves are curled - this reduces the surface area exposed to winds . it also traps air inside , against the lower epidermis , that moisture can build up in the enclosed space

lower epidermis is covered in hairs- this reduces air movement so that water vapour is retained close to the lower epidermis

lower epidermis is folded to create pits in which the stomata are positioned - water vapour builds up in the pits , further reducing the water loss of water vapour from inside the leaf

low density of stomata- fewer stomata means that less water vapour is lost

leaf covered in a thick waxy cuticle - this reduces evaporation of water from the cells of the leaf

71
Q

define behavioural adaptions and give an example

A

is an aspect of the behaviour of an organism that helps it to survive the conditions it lives in
eg when you touch an earthworm it quickly contracts and withdraws into its burrow , the earthworm has no eyes so it cannot tell that you are not a bird about to eat it

72
Q

define physiological/ biochemical adaptations definition

A

is one that ensures the correct functioning of cell processes

73
Q

marram grass physiological adaptions

A
  • the ability to roll its leaf is due to the action of specialised hinge cells in the lower epidermis. these cells lose water when water is scarce and lose their turgidity , this rolls the leaf more tightly. when water is available , the hinge cells become turgid , opening up the leaf to allow easier access for carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
  • the guard cells work in a similar way to open and close the stomata . non turgid cells close the stomata and turgid cells open the stomata
  • marram is not very salt tolerant , but it maintains a cell water potential that is lower than other plants . this enables It to survive in the salty conditions found beside the sea
  • the leaves contain many lignified cells that provide support when turgidity is lost, this keeps the leaf upright when the water is not available
74
Q

define convergent evolution

A

the process whereby organisms not closely related independently evolve similar traits as a result of being adapted to similar environments or ecological niches

75
Q

describe the natural selection process

A
  • mutation creates an alternative version of a gene
  • this creates genetic variation between the individuals of a species
  • once variety exists , then the environment can select . when the resources are scarce , the environment will select those variations that give an advantage , there is selective pressure
  • individuals with an advantageous characteristic will survive and reproduce
  • therefore they pass on their advantageous characteristics
  • the next generation will have a higher proportion of individuals with the successful characteristics. over time the group of organisms becomes well adapted to its environment
76
Q

describe the pesticide/ insecticide resistance in insects

A

a insecticide applies a very strong selection pressure , if the insect is susceptible , then it will die , if it has some form of resistance , then the individual may survive . this will allow the individual with some resistance to reproduce and pass on the resistance characteristic , so resistance quickly spreads through the whole population

when insects become resistance to pesticides it can lead to accumulation in the food chain , when eaten by predators , they can receive a larger dose of insecticide, and work the way up higher in the food chain

77
Q

describe the use of antibiotics

A

when you take antibiotics , most of the bacteria are killed . but there may be a few that are resistant .once most bacteria have been killed you tend to feel better so many people stop taking them before they’ve finished the prescribed course. this allows resistant bacteria to survive and reproduce to create a resistant strain of bacteria

overuse and incorrect use of antibiotics has lead to strain of bacteria that is resistant to virtually any antibiotic

Biology (10 decks)

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