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Cell Division Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

How many pairs of chromosomes do we have

A

23

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2
Q

How many chromosomes in haploid

A

23

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3
Q

How many chromosomes are in diploid

A

46

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4
Q

What is a zygote

A

Fertilised egg cell

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5
Q

DNA + protein =

A

Histone

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6
Q

DNA + hisstones =

A

Chromatin

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7
Q

What are chromatids

A

Short arms

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8
Q

What is the middle of a chromosome called

A

Centromere

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9
Q

What is the cell cycle

A

The process of how cells replicate and divide

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10
Q

What are the stages of the cell cycle

A

G1
S
G2
M- PMAT

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11
Q

What stages are involved with interphase

A

G1
S
G2

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12
Q

What is involved in the G1 phase

A
  • Growth phase
  • Normal metabolic roles
  • Checkpoint control mechanism ensures that the cell is ready to enter the S phase
  • cells grow in size
  • organelles duplicate
  • transcription of genes to make RNA occurs
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13
Q

What is involved in the s stages

A

-DNA replication
-when all chromosomes have been duplicated each one consists of a pair of identical sister chromatids
-rapid phase
-

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14
Q

What is involved in the G2 phase

A
  • Growth and preparations for mitosis
  • special chemicals ensure that the cell is ready for mitosis by stimulating proteins that will be involved in making chromosomes condense and in formation of the spindle fibre
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15
Q

What is involved in the m phase

A

A check point chemical triggers condensation of chromatin

  • cell growth stops
  • include PMAT
  • includes cytokinesis
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16
Q

Describe G zero

A

A resting place triggered during early G at the restriction point by a checkpoint chemical

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17
Q

When do mutations occur

A

When cells are not check pointed properly

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18
Q

What are checkpoints

A

Biological restrictions / traffic point

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19
Q

Where are the two main checkpoints

A

G1/S

G2/M

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20
Q

What are the purpose of check points

A

To prevent uncontrolled divisions that would lead to tumours

To detect and repair damage to DNA

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21
Q

Because the cell cycle happens in a specific sequence it ensures that

A

The cycle cannot be reversed

The DNA is only duplicated once during each cell

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22
Q

What are the 4 stages of mitosis

A

Prophase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase

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23
Q

Describe prophase

Mitosis

A
  • nucleolus begins to fade
  • the centrioles duplicate and move to opposite poles
  • the centrioles form spindle fibres
  • chromosomes shorten and thicken, becoming visible
  • the nuclear envelope begins to disintegrate
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24
Q

Describe metaphase

Mitosis

A
  • chromosomes line up along the equator of the cell
  • one chromatid of each pair lies on either sides
  • spindle fibres attach to the centromeres
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25
Q

Describe anaphase

Mitosis

A
  • the spindle fibre begin to contact

- sister chromatids are pulled apart to and live to opposite poles of the cell

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26
Q

Describe telophase

Mitosis

A
  • separation of chromatid is complete
  • spindle fibres disintegrate
  • each chromatid is now a chromosome
  • the nuclear envelope reforms around each group of chromosomes
  • the cell divides alone the waist via cytokinesis
  • both daughter cells formed are identical
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27
Q

What does homologous mean

Mitosis

A

Chromosomes which are about the same size and contain the same types is genes in same locations. Same alleles

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28
Q

What is meiosis

A

Type of nuclear division that results in the the formation is cells containing half the number of chromosomes of each patent cell

Formation of gametes

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29
Q

How meiosis produces genetic variation

A
  • crossing over during prophase 1 suffers alleles
  • independent assortments of chromosomes in anaphase 1 leads to random distribution of material and paternal chromosomes of each pair
  • haploid gametes are produced which can undergo random fusion with gametes derived from another organism of the same species
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30
Q

What are the stages of meiosis

A 
Prophase 1 
Metaphase 1 
Anaphase 1 
Telophase 1
Prophase 2 
Metaphase 2 
Anaphase 2 
Telophase 2
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31
Q

Describe prophase 1

Meiosis

A
  • chromatin condenses and each chromosome super coils
  • nuclear envelope breaks down , spindle threads of Tubulin protein form from the centrioles
  • chromosomes come together in their homologous pairs
  • each member of the pair consists of two chromatids
  • crossing over occurs
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32
Q

Describe metaphase 1

Meiosis

A
  • pair of homologous chromosomes, still in their crossed over state attach along the equator of the spindle
  • attaches to a spindle thread by its centromere
  • homologous pairs are arranged randomly with its members of each pair facing opposite poles of the cell
  • the way they line up in the metaphase determines how they will segregate independently when pulled apart during anaphase
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33
Q

Describe anaphase 1

Meiosis

A
  • members of each pair of homologous chromosomes are pulled apart by motor proteins that drag them along the tubulin threads of the spindle
  • the centromeres do not divide and each chromosomes consists of two chromatids
  • the crossed over area separates from each other , resulting in swapped area of chromosomes and allele shuffling
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34
Q

Describe telophase 1

Meiosis

A
  • two new nuclear envelopes form around each set of chromosomes and the cell divides by cytokinesis
    Chromosomes uncoil
    -each new nucleus contains half the original number of chromosomes but each chromosomes consists of two chromatids
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35
Q

Describe prophase 2

Meiosis

A
  • if the nuclear envelopes have reformed then they now break down
  • chromosomes coil and condense each one consisting of two chromatids
  • chromatids of each chromosome are no longer identical due to crossing over in prophase 1
  • spindles form
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36
Q

Describe metaphase 2

Meiosis

A
  • chromosomes attach by their new centromere to the equator of the spindle
  • chromatids of each chromosome are randomly arranged
  • the way that hey are arranged will determine how the chromatids separate during anaphase
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37
Q

Describe anaphase 2

Meiosis

A
  • the centromere divides
  • the chromatids of each chromosome are pulled apart by motor proteins that drag them along the tubulin threads of the spindle , towards opposite poles
  • the chromatids and therefore randomly segregated
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38
Q

Describe telophase 2

Meiosis

A
  • nuclear envelope form around each of the four haploid Nuclei
  • the two cells now divide to give us 4 haploid cells
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39
Q

Define differentiation

A

Process by which stem cells become specialised into different types of cells

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40
Q

Define epithelial cells

A

Cells that constitute lining tissues

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41
Q

What are erythrocytes

A

Red blood cells

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42
Q

What are neutrophil

A

Type of white blood cells that is phagocytic

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43
Q

Define stem cells

A

Unspecialised cells able to express all of its genes and divide by mitosis

44
Q

Erythrocytes are adapted to carry out their function in several ways :

A
  • carry oxygen from the lungs to respiring cells
  • small
  • large SA/v ratio , so oxygen can diffuse across their membranes
  • biconcave shape to increase SA/V ratio
  • flexible , so can bend through narrow capillaries
45
Q

Describe neutrophils

A

Twice the size of erythrocytes

  • travel towards infection sites by chemotaxis
  • their function is to ingest bacteria and some fungi by phagocytosis
46
Q

What is spermatozoa

A

Sperm cells

47
Q

How are spermatozoa specialised

A
  • -mitochondria , aerobic respiration and ATP energy
  • small long thin , move easily
  • acrosome - enzymes released to digest egg
48
Q

Where are epithelial cells located

A

Found in the outside of your body and on the inside

Eg - walls of alveoli , exchange surfaces , intestines

49
Q

Squamous epithelial cells are

A

Flatterned in shape

50
Q

Name the specialised plant cells

A 
Upper epidermis 
Palisade mesophyll 
Xylem 
Phloem 
Lower epidermis 
Cuticle 
Spongy mesophyll 
Guard cell 
Stoma
51
Q

Palisade cells are well adapted for photosynthesis because

A
  • long and cylindrical so they pack together closely but with space so gases can diffuse
  • contain chloroplasts
  • large vacuole so chloroplasts are positioned nearer to the top of the cell
  • contain cytoskeleton threads and motor proteins to move chloroplasts
52
Q

Describe guard cells

A

Water enters the guard cells from neighbouring epidermal cells by osmosis

  • the guard cells swell , causing them to open , as they open air can enter the spaces within the layer of cells beneath the palisade layer
  • gaseous exchange can happen
  • water vapour can exit
53
Q

What are root hair cells

A

Are epidermal cells on the pure layer is young plant roots

54
Q

Describe root hair cells

A
  • hair like projections greatly increase the surface area for absorption of water and mineral ions
  • minerals are actively transported
  • produce ATP needed for active transport
55
Q

Define tissue

A

A group of cells working together to perform a specific function

56
Q

What are the body’s 4 main body tissues

A

Epithelial
Connective tissues
Muscle tissues
Nervous tissues

57
Q

Define connective tissues

A

These hold structures together and provide support t

58
Q

Define muscle tissue

A

Made of cells that are specialised to contract and cause movement

59
Q

Define nervous tissues

A

Made of cells specialised to conduct electrical impulses

60
Q

Epithelial tissues cover

A

Skin , respiratory system , walls of organs

61
Q

Characteristics is epithelial tissues

A
  • made entirely of cells
  • specialised to carry out its function of protection , absorption , filtration , excretion and secretion
  • shirt cell cycles
  • some have smooth surfaces , but some have cilia or microvilli
62
Q

What is cilia

A

Are hair like organelle some of which beat and propel substances along the epithelial it faces

63
Q

What are microvilli

A

Are extensions of the plasma membrane to increase its surface area

64
Q

Describe connective tissues

A

Is widely distributed in the body. It consists of a non living extra cellular matrix containing proteins and polysaccharides

This matrix separates the living cells within the tissue and enables it to withstand forces such as weight

65
Q

What are the three types of cartilage

A

Hyaline
Fibrous
Elastic

66
Q

Describe elastic cartilage

A

Makes up the outer ear and the epiglottis

67
Q

Describe fibrous cartilage

A

Occurs in discs between vertebrae in the back nine and the knee joint

68
Q

Describe hyaline cartilage

A

Forms the embryonic skeleton , covers the end of long bones in adults , joins ribs to the sternum and found in the nose , trachea and larynx

69
Q

Muscle tissues allow movement , what are the 3 types

A

Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth muscle

70
Q

Describe skeletal muscles

A

Packaged by connective tissue sheets joined to hone by tendons , these muscles when they contract cause bones to move

71
Q

Describe cardiac muscles

A

Makes up the walls of the heart and allows the heart to beat and pump blood

72
Q

Describe smooth muscles

A

Occur in the walls is intestine, blood vessels , uterus and urinary tracts , and it propels substances along these tracks

73
Q

Define meristem

A

Area of unspecialised cells within a plant that can divide and differentiate into other cell types

74
Q

Define organ

A

Collection of tissues working together to perform a function

75
Q

Define phloem

A

Tissue that carries products of photosynthesis ; in solution within plants

76
Q

Define xylem

A

Tissues that carries water and minerals ions from the roots to all parts of the plant

77
Q

Describe epidermal tissues

A

This is equivalent to epithelial tissues in animals. It consists of flattered cells , lack chloroplast and form a protective covering over leaves , stems and roots

78
Q

Describe meristematic tissues

A

Contain stem cells. It is from this tissue that all other plant tissues are derived by cell differentiation. It is found at roots and shoot tips and in the cambium of vascular bundles

79
Q

Characteristics of meristems

A
  • thin walls containing little cellulose
  • do not have chloroplasts
  • do not have a large vacuole
  • can divide by mitosis and differentiate into other types of cells
80
Q

Explain how cambium cells differentiate into xylem vessels

A
  • lignin is deposited in their cell walls to reinforce and waterproof then
  • the ends of the cell breaks down so that the xylem forms continuous columns with wide lumens to carry water and dissolves mineral
81
Q

Explain how other cambium cells differentiate into phloem sieve tubes or companion cells

A
  • -sieve tubes lose most of the organelle and sieve plates develop between then
  • companion cells retain their organelles and continue metabolic functions to provide ATP for active loading of sugars into the sieve tubes
82
Q

Name the 4 plant organs

A

Leaf
Root
Stem
Flower

83
Q

What is the main function of the leaf

A

Photosynthesis

84
Q

What’s the main function of the root

A
  • anchorage in soil
    • absorption of mineral ions
  • storage
85
Q

What’s the function of stems

A
  • Support
  • holds leaves up so their exposed to more sunlight
  • transport is water and minerals
86
Q

What’s the function of the flower

A
  • sexual reproduction
87
Q

Define organ system

A

A bummer is organs working together to carry out an overall life function

88
Q

What are the organ systems in our body

A 
Digestive 
Circulatory 
Respiratory 
Urinary 
Integumentary 
Musculoskeletal 
Immune 
Nervous 
Endocrine 
Reproductive 
Lymph
89
Q

The digestive system

Organs involved and examples of life processes

A

Oesophagus , stomach , intestines , liver

Nutrition to provide ATP and materials for growth and repair

90
Q

Circulatory system

Organs involved and processes involves

A

Heart and blood vessels

Transport to and from cells

91
Q

Respitory system

Organs and life processes

A

Airways , lungs , diaphragm and intercostal muscles

Breathing and gaseous exchange excretion

92
Q

Urinary system

Organs involved and life processes

A

Kidneys , uterus and bladder

Excretion and osmoregulation

93
Q

Integumentary system

Organs involved , processes

A

Skin hair nails

Waterproofing ,protection , temperature regulation

94
Q

Musculoskeletal system

Organs and processes

A

Skelton , skeletal muscles

Support
Protection
movement

95
Q

Immune system

Organs and processes

A

Bone marrow , skin , blood

Protection against pathogens

96
Q

Nervous system

Organs processes

A

Brain , spinal Cord , nerves

Communication , control , coordination

97
Q

Endocrine

Organs and processes

A

Glands that make hormones

Communication
Control
Coordination

98
Q

Reproductive

Organs and processes

A

Testes , Penis , ovaries , uterus , vagina

Reproduction

99
Q

Lymph

Organ and processes

A

Lymph nodes and vessesls

Transport of fluid back to the circulatory system and is important in resisting infections

100
Q

What are stem cells

A

Unspecialised cells able to express all of its genes and divide by mitosis

101
Q

Describe stem cells

A

Are undifferentiated cells , capable of becoming any type of cell in the organism

  • describe as pluripotent
  • able to express all their genes
  • can divide my mitosis
  • used in medical
102
Q

What are the sources of stem cells

A

Embryonic stem cells
Stem cells In the umbilical cord
Adult stem cells
Induced pluripotent stem cells

103
Q

What are induced Pluripotent stem cells

A

Developed in laboratories by reprogramming differentiated cells to switch in certain key genes and become undifferentiated

104
Q

Where are embryonic stem cells

A

Present in an early embryo formed when the zygote begins to divide

105
Q

What are adult stem cells

A

Are found I developed tissues such tissues such as blood , brain , muscle , bone

They act like a repair system because they are renewing source of undifferentiated cells

106
Q

What are the potential uses in research and medicine

A

Bone marrow transplant
Drug research
Development in biology
Repair of damaged tissue or replace not of lost tissues

Biology (10 decks)

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