class test 1 (weeks 1-4) Flashcards
what are some types of qual research?
- basic interpretative qual study
- grounded theory
- phenomenology
- case study
- ethnography
what does quant research focus on?
translating abstract theory into answerable questions and observable hypothesis
what are stats used to describe in quant research?
escribe aggregated data and draw inferences
what are stats used to describe in quant research?
escribe aggregated data and draw inferences
what are some qual data collection methods?
- observation
- in depth/focus group interview
- documents and record analysis
- nominal group techniques
- key informants
- case studies
- written questionnaire (open-ended questions)
what are types of research designs?
Experimental and quasi-experimental Single subject studies Field studies and naturalistic observations Surveys (focus of unit) Psychometric sturdies
what is the basic characteristic of experimental design?
investigator manipulates independent variable expected to produce effect on DV
what is the aim of experimental design?
to control as much as possible the extraneous influence that may leas to incorrect conclusion
what does quasi-experimental research designs lack?
same degree of rigour in true experiments (eg. Single group or participants act as own control group)
what are single subject studies?
examine impact of intervention on single subject (own controls)
what do single subject studies often involve?
gathering baseline data and then throughout alternating periods where experimental condition is present or withdrawn
what does field studies and naturalistic observations study?
- takes place in real life setting
- study events as they happen in natural enviro
what are field studies and naturalistic observations largely used in?
qual contexts
what are survey studies undertaken to investigate?
characteristics of defined group/pop
vv
what are psychometric studies designed to investigate?
- properties of clinical assessment tools or data collection tools
- reliability and validity of instruments
what are the three underlying purposes of research?
Basic
Applied
Transformative
what is basic research?
- includes investigation undertaken for purpose of generating evidence about phenomena or testing theory
- undertaken for sake of generating new knowledge without direct concern for its applicability or practical significance
what is applied research seeking to solve?
practical problem or generate info specifically to inform practice
what is transformative research designed to bring about?
change in some practical situation or specific context
what does transformative research emphasise?
on transforming social realities so lives are improved
what does transformative research foster?
self-reflection, mutual learning, participation and empowerment
what three factors can research design by analysed based on?
Purpose
Timing of data collection
Extent to which researcher manipulates participants
what is a variable ?
some characteristic that takes different forms in study
what are two types of variables?
independent and dependent
what is the independent variable?
presumed cause of dependent
what is the retrospective timing of research?
esearcher uses data collected before research question was formulated
what is the prospective timing of research?
researcher completes data collection after research question was developed
what does the experimental level of manipulation involve?
controlled manipulation of participants
what does the non-experimental level of manipulation involve?
does not involve manipulation of participants
what are types of controls applied to variables?
- implementation of IV
- participant selection and assignment
- extraneous variables related to setting/participants
- measurement of DV
- info given to participants and research
what are surveys designed to obtain?
- info about prevalence, distribution and interrelations of variables within pop
- gather info regarding beliefs, activities, preferences and attitudes, usually by asking sample of direct questions
what do surveys investigate links or associations between?
variables, known as correlational research
what are surveys used for?
- part of research study/service evaluation/audit
- for quality assurance activities
- for marketing studies
- used as a research tool in many contexts including health, gov
- measures opinions, knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, behaviours, reactions, and attitudes in response t specific questions
what are some advantages of surveys?
- can be applied to different topics
- can be applied to Dif pops or groups
- can be broad or narrow and breadth of topic covered
- economical
- snapshot of an issue
- can be done anonymously
- data is easy to compare and analyse
what are some disadvantages of surveys?
- wording can bias responses
- impersonal
- don’t always get full story
- not conducive to some participant groups to complete
what are some qualities of good survey research?
- measurement accuracy (reliable, valid, sensitive, responsive)
- reproducibility
- generalisability
- accessibility
- readability/understandable
- comprehensive
what are some types of surveys?
Self-completion questionnaire Interviewer-administered Telephone Group administered Mail/post Web-based
what are some positives of self-completed questionnaires?
- low cost
- potential coverage of widely dispersed pop
- avoids interviewer bias
what are some negatives of self-completed questionnaires?
-potential low response rate
-requires certain literacy level
v
chat are some benefits of interviewer-administered interviews?
- collect more detailed/complex data
- able to deal with sensitive/personal topics
- more suitable to elicit story or personal narrative
what is a negative of interviewer-administered interviews?
- costly and resource intensive
- interviewer needs to travel to respondents
- interviewers need to be trained to ensure consistency
- personal characteristics of interviewer can impact on response rate and nature of responses
what are some benefits of telephone interview surveys?
- can cover large pop quickly at low cost
- can provide clarity on questions
what are some disadvantages of telephone interview surveys?
> time consuming
> need access to telephone numbers
> trained interviewers
> have over-abundance of telemarketers
> issue of sampling bias and generalisability
> may not be suitable for some groups
what are some advantages of mailed surveys?
> efficient for volume of info
> likely to provide honest info
> all receive same questions in same way
> larger samples
> cheaper than interviews
> respondent does in own timewhat are some disadvantages of mailed surveys?
> low response rate
> must be simple and easy to read
> need accurate mailing lists
> costs of posting
> privacy, confidentiality and anonymity must be assured
> results may be misleading if do not follow up with non respondents
> generalisability may be limited if respondents are self-selected
> handwriting may not be legible
what are some advantages of group administer surveys?
> high response rate
easy to clarify items
provides greatest sense of anonymity
inexpensive
what are some disadvantages of group administer surveys?
> may require cooperation of others
reach only those in attendance
group dynamics may influence responses
opportunity for researcher to potentially influence responses or answering items
what are some advantages of web based surveys?
> nearly complete elimination of paper, post, and data entry costs
time for implementation of survey can be reduced
once system is developed cost of additional respondents is less
reminders and follow ups general says
display of respondents data can be simultaneous with completion of surveys
currently several good quality online systems
what are some disadvantages of web based surveys?
> not everyone on web
surveys may not be conducive online
not all are equally computer literate
sampling of email address can be difficult
decision not to respond is likely to be more quickly made
what is random sampling?
precise selection where individuals in defined pop have an equal chance of inclusion
what is convenience sampling based on?
participants available
v
what could be a negative of convenience sampling?
open to bias and subjectivity
what is snowball sampling?
-one member asked to suggest to others who could be involved
what is quota sampling?
different groups need to be represented in proportion in their size within overall pops
what is proportional sampling?
portion or percentage of specified group are sampled
what is positivism as a research paradigm?
single, objective reality exists, independent of our experiences
what is positivism as a research paradigm?
single, objective reality exists, independent of our experiences
what is the aim of positivism research paradigms?
explain, predict or control reality
-generates and tests hypothesis
what is constructivism as a research paradigm?
- multiple realities exist
- reality is individually and socially constructed
what is the aim of constructivism as a research of paradigm?
understand, describe and interpret
what are key features of qual research?
- gains participants or insiders (emit) view
- occurs in natural settings
- provides contextual understanding
- rich and deep data in form of words, diagrams, photos and objects
what are types go sampling methods for qual research?
> purposive
> convenience
> snowball
> theoretical
> maximum variationwhat ways is data commonly collected in qualitative research?
> interviews > observations > focus groups > documents > objects
what does grounded theory involve?
xplore social processes/actions
what are key features of grounded theory?
> simultaneous data collection/analysis
constant comparison
memo writing
theoretical sensitivity/saturation/sampling
what does narrative inquiry involve?
explores action, event or experience over time in story form
-help make sense of events/identity
what does phenomenology explore?
lived experience of phenomena
what does ethnography study?
groups of people who shared social and cultural characteristics, thought of themselves as a group, shared common language, geographical location and identity
what is the aim of ethnography?
understand social world by gaining insight of views on shared culture systems
what are data collection methods for ethnography?
> participant observation
> field notes
> key informants interviews
> artefacts or documents
what did participatory action research methodology emerge from nerd for?
oppressed pops to empower themselves and improve lives by acting to address contextual issues
what is the aim of participatory action research?
understand particular context to develop actions and outcomes relevant to interest
what is the aim of participatory action research?
understand particular context to develop actions and outcomes relevant to interest
what do case studies explore?
real-life, contemporary bounded system (case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time
what do case studies explore?
real-life, contemporary bounded system (case) or multiple bounded systems (cases) over time
what are the outcomes of case studies?
case description, case themes
what context are case studies studied in?
eal world life contemporary context/settings
why is rigorous research important?
- trustworthiness
- can rely on findings
- rules, procedures, or techniques relevant to research design
what are the types of info gained through surveys?
- knowledge
- beliefs/attitudes/opinions
- behaviour
- attributes
- aspirations
what are some things to remember when constructing a survey?
- be specific
- clear wording
- include required info
- avoid too precise questions
- phrase personal or incriminating questions in less objectionable way
- use mutually exclusive categories
- avoid making assumptions
what are some things to remember when constructing a survey?
- be specific
- clear wording
- include required info
- avoid too precise questions
- phrase personal or incriminating questions in less objectionable way
- use mutually exclusive categories
- avoid making assumptions
what is reliability?
-refers to how well data collected by using a questionnaire can be reproduced
what are some types of reliability?
> test-retest
> internal consistency
> intra/inter-rater reliability
what is validity?
-refers to how well items measure what they are intended to
what are some types of validity?
> face
> content
> criterion-related
> concurrent
> predictive
> convergent/divergent
> constructwhat are some advantages of close ended questions?
- enable comparison
- less time
- easy to code/process
what are some disadvantages of close ended questions?
- cannot capture in-depth or spontaneous responses
- can sometimes bias answers by forcing answer choice
- limits chance to consider options not previously considered
what are some negative os open ended questions?
- more effort from respondent
- possibility of interviewer variability
- time-consuming
- difficult to score and analyse, makes comparisons challenging
what are some positives about open ended questions?
- allows respondent to answer in own words
- allows exploration of thoughts, feelings, views, perspectives and experiences in more depth
what are some types of response formats for surveys?
- multiple response pick list
- narrative comments
- short answer
- dichotomous answers: yes/no, true/false
- rank ordering
what is mixed methods?
-combines quant and qual methodologies
what is the multiple data gathering methods approach to mixed methods?
use of multiple data gathering methods in qual or quant paradigm
what does triangulation assume?
bias inherent in articular data sources, investigator/method is neutralised when combined
what are some problems that are addressed by a mixed methods approach?
- one data source maybe insufficient to answer research question
- need to explain initial results
- need to generalise explorative (qual) findings
- need to enhance study with second method
what three basic mixed method designs did Crewel 2014 propose?
- convergent parallel MMD
- explanatory sequential MMD
- exploratory sequential MMD
are qual and aunt equal in convergent parallel MMD?
yes
what is the national statement on ethical conduct in human research developed by?
- national health and medical research council (NHMRC)
- Aus research council (ARC)
- Aus vice-chancellor committee
what does the national statement of ethical conduct in human research focus on?
- promoting ethical research
- respect and protection of participants
- research benefits community
what is the national statement on ethical conducting human research used for?
- inform design of studies
- guide ethical review
- conduct
what are four principles of biomedical ethics?
- respect autonomy
- beneficence
- non-maleficence
- justice
what is research merit as a rule of ethical research?
- has benefit
- respect upheld in all research phases
what is respecting autonomy in research?
- right to informed decisions and withdraw at any time
- confidentiality
what is beneficence in research?
benefit must outweigh risks
what is non-maleficence in research?
must identify and manage any risks
what is justice in research?
fairness in relation to recruitment, burden, or risks and equal access to benefits
how must researchers commit to maintain research integrity?
- searching for knowledge/understanding
- follow principles of conduct
- conduct honestly
- disseminate and communicate results to contribute to knowledge and allow scrutiny
what is distributive justice?
benefits and burdens fairly distributed
what is procedural justice?
participant recruitment and review are conducted fairly
how must researchers assess/manage risks to maintain beneficence in research?
> designing to minimise risk
> inform of potential risks and benefits
> ensure welfare
what are the levels of risk in research?
harm, discomfort (low), or inconvenience (negligible)
what can risk result from?
- process
- data collection and storage
- dissemination of findings
what are the potential benefits of research to knowledge?
- gain knowledge, insight, or understanding
- increase skills
what are the potential benefits of research to participants?
- opportunity to reflect and share knowledge
- sense of contributing to society
- benefit from new technology/intervention
what are the potential benefits of research to the community?
- increase public knowledge
- improve community knowledge and resources
- increase ability to address issues
how can informed consent be obtained and documented?
> may be expressed orally, written or implied
> may be ongoing process throughout study
> might come from individual participant, with support of community, legal guardian
> must keep signed consent form secure and seperate from de-identified data
what is coercion or pressure as an issue?
> decision to participant must be free from pressure
> aware of power differentials
> all participation must be voluntary
what is deception as a research issue?
> relevant materials/info is withheld or mislead
> might occur in instances where participants knew purpose which could alter behaviour
> requires careful consider
what is an issue around participant recruitment as an ethical issue?
> equal chance
> guided by inclusion/exclusion criteria
what is confidentiality as an issue for research?
> conceal participants
must inform when potential of identification is possible
interview transcripts use a pseudonym (fake name), change organisation, places etc.
what is data identifiability as a research issue?
> identifiable: identify of individuals can be determined
re-identifiable: identifying info removed and replaced with code to be later re-identified
non-identifiable: identity is unknown, no identifying info
what are three forms of misconduct when reporting findings?
> fabrication= making up data
> falsification= misrepresentation
> plagiarism= misuse of another’s ideas, processes, results or words without credit
what are some vulnerable pops in research?
- pregnant women and foetus
- children and young people (under 18)
- may include people who are:> dependent or uneven relationships
dependent on medical care who may be unable to give consent
involved in illegal activity
cognitive impairment, intellectual disability or mental illness
Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander
people from other countries or culturally linguistic diverse backgrounds
what are weaknesses of narrative and traditional lit reviews?
> large number of studies may be difficult to draw conclusions
> process is subject to bias that supports researcher’s work
what is the principle purpose of narrative review?
to give comprehensive overview of topic and highlight significant areas of research, narrative reviews can identify gaps and refine research questions
how does narrative differ from a systemic approach?
in notation of search methods criteria for selection, this can leave NR open to suggestions of bias
what outcomes can come from narrative or traditional lit reviews?
- draws conclusions
- identifies gaps/inconsistencies in knowledge
what is the ai of a critical review?
demonstrate writer has extensively researched and evaluated quality
what is the aim of a critical review?
demonstrate writer has extensively researched and evaluated quality
what does a critical review go beyond?
description to include degree of analysis and conceptual innovation
what do critical reviews seek to identify?
significant items
what is a synthesis approach to critical review?
typically narrative, conceptual or chronological
what is the analysis approach to a critical review?
sig. component: seeks to identify conceptual contribution to exisiting or derive new theory
what is the difference between a scoping review and systemic?
scoping has no restrictions on materials resourced
what is the purpose and aim of a scoping review?
- to find all materials, important to systematise search strategies to replicate results and attend to any gaps
- aim to identify nature and extent of evidence
what is the search approach in a scoping review?
completeness of searching determined by time/scope constraints
what is the synthesis approach to scoping reviews?
typically tabular with some narrative commentary
what is the analysis approach used in a scoping review?
characterises quantity and quality of lit, perhaps by study design and other key features, attests to specify viable review
what is a critically appraised topic?
- short summary of evidence on topic of interest, usually around clinical question
- shorter less rigorous version of systemic review, summarising best available research on topic
do integrative reviews use summary stats?
no
what does a systemic review seek?
to systemically search for, appraise, and synthesise research, often adhering to guidelines on conduct
what is a systemic review primarily based on?
randomised controlled trials
what is a systemic review primarily based on?
randomised controlled trials
what is a systemic review used for?
to summarise, appraise and communicate contradictory results or unmanageable amounts of research
what is the search aim of a systemic review?
for exhaustive, comprehensive searching
what is the approach to appraisal in a systemic review?
quality assessment may determine inclusion/exclusion
what is a synthesis approach in a systemic review?
typically narrative with tabular accompaniment
what is an analysis approach to systemic reviews?
what is known; recommendations for practice. What remains unknown: uncertainty around findings, recommendations for future
what is a meta analysis technique?
- quant stat analysis of several separate, but similar experiments to test pooled data for stat sig.
- technique that statistically combines results of quant studies to provide more precise effect of results
what does meta analysis draw and detect?
conclusions and patterns/relationships
what is the appraisal involved in meta analysis?
quality assessment may determine inclusion/exclusion and/or sensitivity analyses
what is the synthesis approach used in meta analysis?
graphical and tabular with narrative commentary
what is the analysis approach used in meta analysis?
numerical analysis of measures of effect assuming absence of heterogeneity
what is meta-synthesis/qual systemic review/qual evidence synthesis a method used for?
integrating or comparing findings, looks for themes or constructs
what is the goal of Meta-Synthesis/Qual Systemic Review/Qual Evidence Synthesis?
transform individual findings into new conceptualisations and interpretation
what is the search strategy used in Meta-Synthesis/Qual Systemic Review/Qual Evidence Synthesis?
may employ selective or purposive sampling
what is the appraisal approach used for Meta-Synthesis/Qual Systemic Review/Qual Evidence Synthesis?
quality assessment used to mediate messages not for inclusion/exclusion
what is the synthesis approach used for Meta-Synthesis/Qual Systemic Review/Qual Evidence Synthesis?
qual, narrative synthesis
what is the analysis approach used for in Meta-Synthesis/Qual Systemic Review/Qual Evidence Synthesis?
thematic analysis, may include conceptual models
what do state of the art reviews tend to address?
more current matters in contrast to combined retrospective and current approaches. May offer new perspectives
what is the search strategy for state of the art reviews?
im for comprehensive searching of current lit
what is the approach to appraisal in state oil the art reviews?
no formal quality assessment
what is the approach to state of the art reviews?
typically narrative, may have tabular accompaniment
what is the approach to analysis in state of the art reviews?
current state of knowledge and priorities for future
what is a sample?
is a portion of pop chosen to rep specific info/data
what is sampling a process of?
using data to make interference with confidence about whole pop based on study of a few participants (sample)
what is sampling a process of?
using data to make interference with confidence about whole pop based on study of a few participants (sample)
what is it called if all members of the pop were identical?
homogenous
what is it called when individuals from pop differ from each other?
heterogeneous
what is non-probability sampling?
s a group of sampling techniques where samples are collected in way not to Gove all individuals equal chance of selection
what are some types of non-probability sampling?
- convenience
- purposive or judgmental
- snowball
- quota
what is purposive sampling?
electing sample based on knowledge of pop, elements, and purpose of study. Selecting people who would be good informants
when is purposive sampling used?
when researchers are interested in studying cases that do not fit regular patterns of attitudes and behaviours, relies on prior ability to determine suitable participants
what does quota sampling begin with?
- metric of pop, data collected from people matching defining characteristics of each cell in matrix
- each cell is assigned a weight matching its proportion of pop
what does data provide a presentative of in quota sampling?
rep of pop when samples are selected based on probability proportionate to distribution of variable in pop
what is representativeness in probability sampling?
-sample is representative of pop from which it is selected to the extent that it has the same aggregate characteristics
what’s equal probability of selection method?
-every member of pop has same chance of being selected for sample
what is a sampling frame?
-list of every element/case in pop from which a probability/sample can be selected
what are types of probability sampling?
- simple random
- systemic random
- stratified
- multi stage
- cluster random
what is involved in simple random sampling?
- any person can be selected by random approach not on criteria
- feasible only with simplest type of sampling frame (comprehensive one)
what is systemic random sampling?
-uses random starting point, with every nth element selected
how does stratified sampling differ?
-rather than selecting sample from overall pop, participants are divided up into different subsets or groups
what is multi stage sampling?
- combination of one or moire methods described above
- pop divided into multiple clusters and then these clusters are further divided and grouped into various subgroups (strata) based on similarity
- one or more clusters can be randomly selected from each stratum. This process continues until cluster cannot be divided anymore.
what are the steps used to design a questionnaire?
- Write out primary and secondary aims
- Write out concepts/info to be collected that relates to aims
- Review current lit to identify already validated questionnaires that measure specific area of interest
- Compose draft of survey
- Revise draft
- Assemble final survey
how do you define an aim when designing a questionnaire?
write out problem and primary and secondary aims, formulate stat analysis, and define target pop
how do you define variables to be collected in a survey?
detail list of info to collect translate into variables that can be measured
what is involved in composing a draft when making a questionnaire?
- determine mode
- write more questions than needed
- ensure question flow
- important items in first half
what is required in the revise stage of questionnaire development?
- shorten set of questions
- refine questions
what is involved in assembling a questionnaire?
- decide format
- at top state: purpose, how data will be used, instructions, confidentiality policy
- include white space
- order to stimulate recall etc.
how can response rates be enhanced?
- edit with a view toward saliency: relevance, importance, and interest
- pre-notifying or reminders
- incentives
how can response rates be enhanced?
- edit with a view toward saliency: relevance, importance, and interest
- pre-notifying or reminders
- incentives
What do Moser and Kalton (2018) suggest to quantify characteristics of the non-responders to postal surveys?
Those who take longer to return are most like non-responders, result may be situation-dependent
what are some key features of qual research?
- gains participant or insider (emit) view
- occurs in natural settings
- provides contextual understanding
- researcher forms research tool
- inductive reasoning
- holistic
what are some key features of qual research?
- gains participant or insider (emit) view
- occurs in natural settings
- provides contextual understanding
- researcher forms research tool
- inductive reasoning
- holistic
what are common qual research designs?
- grounded theory
- narrative
- ethnography
- phenomenology
- participatory action research
- case study
what should an interviewer do when interviewing in qual research?
- outline topic/issue
- define key terms, avoid jargon
- ensure sufficient space under questions
- seperate interview guide for each participant
what are some things to consider when arriving for an interview?
- set participant at ease
- explain purpose
- provide with info and consent form
- allow questions etc.
what are some things to consider at the beginning of an interview?
- use survey guide
- start with easy questions
- begin with open ended
- body language and verbal cues
what are some things to consider when ending an interview?
- summarise key points
- ask if they have any more questions
- invite to add further comment
what are some things to consider doing following completion of the interview?
- thank them
- debrief
- provide feedback
- record reflection on interview
what are ten interview principles and skills?
- open-ended questions
- be clear
- listen
- probe as appropriate
- observe
- be empathetic and neutral
- distinguish types of questions
- be present
- be prepared for unexpected
what are some trustworthiness strategies?
- prolonged engagement
- reflexivity
- triangulation
- member checking
- audit trail
what are the types of interview questions?
- background/demographic
- experience/behaviour
- opinion/value
- feeling
- knowledge
- sensory
what are three levels of in-depth interviews?
- unstructured
- semi-structured
- structured/standardised
what are the four stages of conducting an interview?
- arriving
- beginning
- ending
- following
what is the key document that guides the conduct of human research?
Aus national statement on ethical conduct in human research
what are the four criteria used to evaluate trustworthiness?
- transferability
- credibility
- confirmability
- dependability
what coding is used for data analysis in qualitative research?
- open/initial coding
- focused coding
- theoretical coding
what is ontology?
study of existence, nature of being
what is epistemology?
theory of knowledge
what is a paradigm?
typical example or pattern
