CiM: Discovery and development, 1860-75 Flashcards
Louis Pasteur’s experiments (3)
-Investigated why vats of beer turned sour, later testing milk, wine and vinegar
-If the substance was heated, it did not go sour (proving heat could kill microorganisms)
-If the substance was exposed to air it turned sour, whereas when covered it did not (disproving spont. gen.)
Germ Theory (1861) and its impact (6)
-The air contains living microorganisms
-Microorganisms are not distributed evenly in the air
-Microorganisms in the air cause decay
-Microorganisms can be killed by heating them
-Details of experiments published in scientific journals, and ideas were gradually accepted
-It was not clear why some microorganisms caused diseases while others did not
Joseph Lister (1865-) and carbolic acid/antiseptics (4)
-Lister read Pasteur’s Germ Theory
-He realized that carbolic acid could kill microorganisms responsible for decay and smell
-Began treating patients with carbolic acid, and his patients’ death rate went from 45% (64-66) to 15% (67-70)
-Also developed carbolic spray to ensure no microorganisms from the surgeon or equipment could enter the wound
Opposition to antiseptics (6)
-Carbolic spray made equipment slippery and difficult to grip, slowing down operation (blood loss issue)
-Spray made skin on the doctors’ hands cracked and sore
-Many doctors did not accept Pasteur’s germ theory and therefore antiseptics too
-Doctors did not use them properly and found them ineffective, and nurses were irritated by the extra work needed
-Other doctors had a simple hygiene routine that saw decent results, and saw no need for antiseptics
-Lister frequently adjusted his techniques, seeming unconfident in his ideas
Joseph Bazalgette and the Great Stink (3)
-Bazalgette had 3 million to build a sewer system after the government was finally convinced by cholera/Great Stink (1858)
-Two key features: Large, oval brick sewers (less likely to get stuck), and waste brought down to ends of the Thames so sewage could be washed out of sea
-When the project was finished it had cost 6.5m, and took several years to complete
Local govt. in Birmingham and Manchester (2)
-Local council in Manchester increased regulations on room and window size in new house (sufficient light and ventilation)
-Joseph Chamberlain (mayor of Birmingham) improved water supplies and demolished slums
Why were attitudes towards the role of government changing? (5)
-Initial attitudes of “laissez-faire”, and laws were often ignored e.g. smallpox vaccines for children until 1871
-People initially didn’t want more govt. action as they had to pay more in taxes
-Chadwick and Snow’s work highlighted importance of sanitation, 1866 Sanitary Act also enforced towns to employ inspectors
-People began to accept Pasteur’s Germ Theory, and realized the importance of town councils improving public cleanliness
-As more people gained the right to vote, there was more pressure on parliament to get involved, as political parties offered policies that made them popular with the majority, meaning considering needs of ordinary people rather than the wealthy
1875 Public Health Act (7)
Made local authorities responsible for:
-Supply of clean water
-Dealing with sewage by preventing it polluting drinking and washing water
-Ensure good standards of new housing to avoid dampness and overcrowding
-Inspecting conditions in lodging houses
-Employing Health + Sanitary Inspectors to make sure regulations were obeyed
-Creating street lighting to prevent accidents
-Checking quality of sold food
Impact of the 1875 Public Health Act (3)
-Reflected changing attitude towards laissez-faire, showing an increased role of govt. and establishing national standard
-Showed how important local authorities were in enforcing these laws
-Local authorities also had to collect additional money from rate payers to pay for improvements
-Risk of disease decreased significantly
Initial care offered for disease/illness (4)
-Cared for by family members/nurses with no training (+no records kept) at home, according to a physician’s instructions
-Treatment at a small hospital relying on charity for funding; Few patients admitted and required letter of recommendation
-Treatment at infirmaries in large populations, where people could queue up to be seen by a doctor
-However, standards of care in hospitals were still low, and there was little progress in treatment of diseases
Florence Nightingale’s hospitals (3)
-Famous after work on Crimea, she was regarded as an expert on nursing and hospitals, and was an excellent organizer.
-Her book “Notes on Hospitals” (1859) recommended hospitals to have space, ventilation and cleanliness
-Believed in miasma and to keep everything clean and have more fresh air, and although miasma was wrong, she made hospitals more hygienic which reduced infection
Nightingale’s nurse training (4)
-She also wrote “Notes on Nursing” (1859), giving advice on the importance of ventilation, light, bedding, cleanliness and food
-Also discussed nurse’s personal cleanliness and their role in observing the patient and reporting to the doctor
-Book translated into 11 languages, which had her ideas influenced even outside of Britain
-She set up training schools for nurses and midwives, and gave evidence to parliament, inspiring many others
Elizabeth Garrett (6)
-Came from a wealthy background
-First woman to join the Society of Apothecaries (after father threatened to sue); rules changed so no other woman could
-Opened St. Mary’s Dispensary (1866), upgraded with 10 bed ward (1872) staffed by women, and expanded several times
-Went to Paris to gain a medical degree
-Became a member of the British Medical Association (BMA 1873), only woman for next 19 years
-First female mayor in England: Mayor of Aldeburgh (1908)
Names of other female doctors (3)
-Frances Hoggan
-Sophia Jex-Blake
-Edith Pechey
Problems faced by female doctors (4)
-License difficult to obtain, as medical schools refused to accept women
-Payed additional fees to cover cost of private tuition
-Faced opposition and harassment from other students and were not allowed to do practical work
Attitudes towards women were slow to change
