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A&P II Final > Chs 24, 27 > Flashcards

Chs 24, 27 Flashcards

0
Q

Insensible water loss

A

Water loss through breath and cutaneous transpiration

*water loss we are not conscious of

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1
Q

Sources of water

A
  • metabolism (from dehydration synthesis reactions and aerobic respiration)
  • Intake of preformed water
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2
Q

Sensible water loss

A
  • Urine, swearing, etc

* water loss we notice

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3
Q

Obligatory water loss

A

Water output that is unavoidable

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4
Q

Sodium

A
  • Principal cation of the ECF

- resting membrane potentials – Inflow is essential for depolarization

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5
Q

Potassium

A
  • Principal cation in ICF
  • greatest determinant in cellular osmolarity and cell volume
  • outflow produces resting membrane potential and action potentials
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6
Q

Chloride

A
  • Most abundant anion of ECF
  • Major contributor of osmolarity of ECF
  • formation of stomach acid and chloride shift that accompanies CO2 loading/unloading by RBCs
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7
Q

Calcium

A
  • skeletal strength
  • activates sliding filament mechanism of muscle contraction
  • second messenger of some hormones/neurotransmitters
  • stimulates exocytosis of neurotransmitters
  • essential in blood clotting
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8
Q

Phosphates

A

Part of Nucleic acids, ATP, cAMP

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9
Q

Physiological buffers

A

System that stabilizes pH by controlling body’s output

- urinary system has greatest effect but acts over several hours
- respiratory system has smaller effect but acts within minutes
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10
Q

Chemical buffers

A

Chemical that binds H+ and removes it for solution or releases it into solution as needed

- bicarbonate buffer
- phosphate buffer
- protein buffer system
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11
Q

Gametes

A

Sex cells produced by parents that meet and combine to form a zygote (fertilized egg)

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12
Q

Primary sex organs versus Secondary sex organs

A

Primary - gonads and sex hormones

Secondary - ducts, glands, penis, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina

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13
Q

Secondary sex characteristics

A

Physique, voice, body hair

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14
Q

Timing of sex differentiation in embryo

A

Weeks 3-8

  • gonads begin to develop at weeks 5-6 beginning as gonadal ridge in medial side of mesonephros (embryonic kidney)
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15
Q

Two ducts of mesonephros

A
  • Mesonephric ducts (Wolffian duct)

- Paramesonephric ducts (Mullerian ducts)

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16
Q

SRY gene and effect on sex differentiation

A

The Y chromosome contains the SRY gene that stimulates the gonadal ridge to produce testis-determining factor (TDF) to become a testis

  • weeks 7-8, the testis produces Mullerian-inhibiting factor to atrophy the Paramesonephric ducts
  • if androgen is NOT present, female development occurs at 8-9 weeks
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17
Q

What does it mean to say that external genitalia development arises from homologous structures?

A

Male and female external genitalia develops from the same embryonic origin

Clitoris – Penis
Greater vestibular glands – bulbourethral glands
Paraurethral glands – prostate glands

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18
Q

Androgen-insensitivity syndrome

A
  • female shows usual signs of puberty but does not menstruate due to presence of testes in the abdomen and XY karyotype
  • testes produce androgen but the receptors are insensitive to it
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19
Q

Descent of gonads

A

Weeks 6-10 - begins

  • a connective tissue cord called the gunernaculum extends from the gonad to the floor of the abdominopelvic cavity
  • 7th month testes pass through inguinal canal to the scrotum
  • inguinal canal is a common site of herniation in males
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20
Q

Cryptorchidism

A

Undescended testes

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21
Q

Scrotum

A

Pouch of skin, muscle, and fibrous connective tissue containing the testes

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22
Q

Testes

A
  • Each testis is divided into 250-300 lobules, each containing 1-3 seminiferous tubules that flow into the urete
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23
Q

Seminiferous tubules

A

Layers of germ cells plus sustentacular cells (aka Sertoli cells) that support and nourish developing germ cells and also form the blood-testis barrier to prevent antibodies from destroying the haploid cells

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24
Q

Spermatic ducts (4 types)

A
  • Efferent ductules - ~12, carry sperm to the epididymis via ciliated cells that move the sperm along
  • Duct of epididymis - the epididymis is the site of sperm maturation and storage - remain fertile for 40-60 days
  • Ductus deferens - muscular tube that widens into a terminal ampulla - innervated by sympathetic nerve fibers
  • Ejaculatory duct - empties into urethra
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25
Q

Accessory glands of the male anatomy (3 sets)

A

(1) seminal vesicles (constitutes ~60% of semen)
(2) prostate gland (~30% of semen)
(3) bulbourethral gland (produces fluid for lubrication)

26
Q

Timing of puberty male versus female

A

10-12 years for male, 8-10 for females

27
Q

Role of GnRH in Sperm Production

A

GnRH –> LH –> interstitial cells to secrete androgen

GnRH –> FSH –> Sertoli cells to secrete androgen-binding protein (ABP)

Androgen + ABP = spermatogenesis

28
Q

Primordial Germ Cell Formation

A
  • the very first blood cells and early reproductive cells are formed by the yolk sac
  • the primordial germ cells migrate into the gonadal ridges to become spermatogonia
29
Q

Three Principal Events of Spermatogenesis

A
  • triggered by rise in testosterone secretion at puberty
  • takes place in seminiferous tubules
  • three principal events:
    (1) division and remodeling of a large germ cell into four small, mobile cells with flagella (mitosis)
    (2) reduction of chromosome number by one-half (meiosis)
    (3) shuffling of genes so each chromosome of sperm carries new gene combinations (meiosis)
30
Q

Steps of Spermatogenesis

A

(1) type A spermatogonium provide lifetime supply of stem cells while type B migrate away from wall (both undergo mitosis)
(2) Type B enlarge to form primary spermatocytes
(3) Primary spermatocytes undergo meiosis I to form haploid secondary spermatocytes
(4) secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis II to form four spermatids per spermatogonium
(5) spermatids undergo spermiogenesis

31
Q

Spermiogenesis

A

Spermatid differentiates into a single spermatozoon - sheds cytoplasm to be left with head (DNA), body (mitochondria), and tail

32
Q

Sperm count

A

Semen usually has a sperm count of 50-120 million/mL

33
Q

Gland contribution to semen

A

Prostate: calcium, citrate, phosphate, clotting enzyme, protein-hydrolyzing enzyme (serine protease)

Seminal vesicles: fructose, prostaglandins

34
Q

Fetal egg cells

A
  • during 5th month of pregnancy, fetus carries 6-7 million egg cells
  • this drops down to 2 million at birth
  • ~400,000 remain at puberty
35
Q

Uterine wall

A
  • Perimetrium - external Serosa
  • Myetrium - smooth muscle
  • Endometrium
    • site of implantation
    • stratum functionalis is shed during menstruation
    • stratum basalis regenerates the stratum functionalis
36
Q

Oogenesis

A
  • release of one egg per month
  • primordial germ cells from the yolk sac travel via the gonal ridge to become oogonia before birth
  • shortly before birth oogonia transform into primary oocytes (egg or ovum)
  • FSH stimulates oocytes to complete meiosis I to produce two daughter cells: a secondary oocyte and a first polar body
  • secondary oocytes arrests at metaphase II until after ovulation
  • if secondary oocyte is fertilized, it completes meiosis II and sheds a second polar body
37
Q

Atresia

A

Degeneration of primary oocytes

38
Q

First and second polar bodies

A

First polar body is one of the two daughter cells produced by primary oocytes through meiosis I
- some will go on to meiosis II but ultimately degenerates

Second polar body is shed by a secondary oocyte completing meiosis II

39
Q

Sexual Cycle

A
  • Ovarian cycle

- Menstrual cycle

40
Q

Phases of Ovarian Cycle

A

(1) Follicular phase
- day 1-14 (spans beginning of menstruation to ovulation)
- FSH stimulates development of follicles that secrete estrogen
- LH surges ~day 14 to stimulate ovulation

(2) Ovulation

(3) Luteal phase
- Days 15-28
- corpus luteum develops to secrete progesterone
- degenerates into corpus albicans if no pregnancy occurs

41
Q

Phases of Menstrual Cycle (Run concurrently with Ovarian Cycle)

A

(1) Menstrual phase - 5 days
- endometrial discharge
- day 1 of new cycle
(2) Proliferative phase 6-14
- estrogen stimulates regrowth of stratum functionalis and progesterone receptors
(3) Secretory phase - 15-26
- progesterone stimulates uterine glands to secrete glycogen-rich fluid in the event of pregnancy
- Lamina propria swells
- endometrium prepared for implantation
(4) Premenstrual phase 27-28
- drop in progesterone results in endometrial ischemia

42
Q

Endometriosis

A

Endometrial tissue escapes the cervix, enters surrounding organs, and begins to grow

43
Q

Blood supply to uterus

A

Uterine artery that branches off the internal iliac artery

44
Q

Define:
Thelarche
Pubarche
Menarche

A

Thelarche - development of breasts (estrogens)

Pubarche - development of hair, glands (androgens)

Menarche - first menstrual period

45
Q

Stages of Labor

A

(1) Dilation
- cervical dilation/effacement
- water breaking
(2) Expulsion
- crowning
(3) Placental stage
- afterbirth

46
Q

“Window” of Fertilization

A
  • 48 hours before to 14 hours after ovulation
47
Q

Capacitation

A

Process sperm must undergo to be able to penetrate an egg (can take around 10 hours)

48
Q

Acrosmal reaction

A

Sperm encountering eggs exocytize the acrosome with hyaluronidase and acrosin

49
Q

Fast versus Slow Block

A

Fast block = when egg and sperm bind, Na+ channels depolarize the egg membrane to inhibit further binding by other sperm

Slow block = secretory vesicles respond to Ca++ inflow to push away other sperm

50
Q

Major stages of prenatal development

A

(1) Preembryonic stage
(2) Embryonic stage
(3) Fetal stage

51
Q

Preembryonic stage of Fetal Development

A

Fertilization –> Embryo (first 16 days)

  • Cleavage
    Blastomeres –> Morula –> Blastocyst
  • Implantation
    6 days after ovulation
  • Embryogenesis
52
Q

Layers of Blastocyst

A

Trophoblast - outer layer of squamous cells that becomes part of the placenta
- secretes HCG to stimulate corpus luteum to release progesterone and estrogen to suppress menstruation

Embryoblast - inner mass of cells that develops into the embryo

53
Q

Implantation

A

Trophoblast separates into two layers:

(1) cytotrophoblast
(2) syncytiotrophoblast

54
Q

Embryogenesis - primary germ layers

A

(1) Ectoderm –> epidermis, nerve tissue, lens
(2) Mesoderm –> dermis, muscle, blood, skeleton
(3) Endoderm –> mucosal epithelium of GI tract, respiratory tract

55
Q

Embryonic Stage of Fetal Development

A

2 weeks to end of 8th week

  • organogenesis
56
Q

Four Embryonic Membranes

A

(1) Amnion
- protects from trauma, infection, temperature/pressure changes
- allows for movement and symmetrical growth

(2) Yolk sac
- first blood cells, germ cells, contributes to formation of digestive tract

(3) Allatois
- foundation of umbilical cord and becomes part of urinary bladder

(4) Chorion
- outermost membrane
- forms fetal portion of the placenta

57
Q

Three forms of Prenatal Nutrition

A

(1) Uterine milk
(2) Trophoblastic nutrition
(3) Placenta

58
Q

Fetal Stage of Prenatal Development

A

9 weeks –> birth

  • fetal circulation from 2 umbilical arteries and 1 umbilical vein
59
Q

Ductus Venosus

A

Allows circulation to bypass liver

60
Q

Foramen ovals

A

Oval opening between right and left atria of heart

61
Q

Ductus arteriosus

A

Opening between pulmonary trunk and aorta

62
Q

Neonatal circulation

A

Foramen ovale –> fossa Ovalis

Ductus arteriosus –> ligamentum arteriosum

Ductus Venosus –> ligamentum Venosum

A&P II Final (3 decks)

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