Chromosomes Flashcards
What is cytogenetics?
The examination/visualization of chromosomes
What do these terms mean?
- Metacentric
- Submetacentric
- Acrocentric
- Telocentric
- Metacentric: centromere is in the middle of the whole chromosome
- Submetacentric: centromere is skewed slightly to one side of the chromosome
- Acrocentric: centromere is skewed to one side of the chromosome
- Telocentric: the centromere is at one end of the chromosome
What is the nomenclature of a human karyotype?
Lists in order:
- Number of chromosomes per cell
- Complement of sex chromosomes
- Any abnormal chromosomes
What is the nomenclature of a human chromosome?
Lists in order:
- Chromosome number
- p- short arm or q- long arm
- The region of the arm
- The band number
e. g. 7q36 (chromosome 7, long arm (q), region 3, band 6
What are the two methods to distinguish between chromosomes?
- G-banding:
- Chromosomes are treated with agent to loosen DNA-protein interaction
- Giemsa stain is added making light and dark bands - FISH (chromosome painting):
- A probe that contains many sequences from an individual chromosome is labelled fluroscently
- The probe is then hybridised the the chromosome in situ
What are the sex determining systems of:
- Mammals
- Birds
- Lizards
- Snakes
- Alligators and turtles
- Drosophila
- Grasshoppers
- Wasps, bees and ants
1. Mammals: Female: XX Male: XY (Y determines male sex) 2. Birds: Female: ZW Male: ZZ 3. Lizards: Female: XX Male: XY 4. Snakes: Female: ZW Male: ZZ 5. Alligators and turtles: Female: high temp Male: low temp 6. Drosophila: Female: XX Male: XY (1 copy of X determines male sex) 7. Grasshoppers: Female: XX Male: X 8. Wasps, bees and ants Female: diploid Male: haploid
What is X-inactivation?
- X-inactivation is the process by which randomly one of the two X chromosomes in female cells is inactivated
- This is to compensate for differences in gene dosages between males and females (most genes on X are not involved in sex differences)
- Early in female development an X chromosome in each cell will be randomly inactivated and this inactivated state is propagated to all progeny cells
- Therefore females with X-linked dominant disorders are mosaics
What is the mechanism of X-inactivation?
- Initiation:
- A region of the X chromosome (Xq13) called the X inactivation centre (Xic) encodes the gene XIST (X-inactive specific transcript)
- Xic is expressed only on the inactive X - Spreading:
- The XIST RNA is not translated but spreads out and coats the inactivated X, this ensures most genes (all but 15% are inactivated- the pseduo-autosomal region) - Maintenance:
- X inactivation is maintained by continued XIST expression in the Barr body in interphase
How are human genes mapped to chromosomes using somatic cell hybrids?
- An interspecies hybrid cell can be made from fusing the somatic cells of a human and another animal e.g. mouse
- In interspecies hybrid cells the chromosomes of one or other parent are progressively and randomly lost to bring the chromosome number down to a normal number
- By identifying cell lines in which all the other species e.g. mouse chromosomes are retained and only one or two human chromosomes genes can be mapped
- This is done by detecting the presence of a gene product e.g. via an assay, in certain cells and correlating this to the presence of the human chromosome
What is aneuploidy?
- Aneuploidy: loss or gain of one or more entire chromosomes
- Euploid: normal chromosome complement
- Monosomic: loss of one chromosome
- Trisomic: gain of one chromosome
What is the difference between the pair of chromosomes that are a result of non-disjunction at meiosis 1 vs non-disjunction at meiosis 2?
Non-disjunction at meiosis I:
- The gamete is given two copies of a chromosome from different homologs
Non-disjunction at meiosis II:
- The gamete is given two copies of a chromosome from the same homologous chromosome pair
Why do aneuplodies cause an abnormal phenotype?
- The mutations are a result of the products of genes being out of balance
- Monosomy is more abnormal than trisomy
- Aneuploidy is more severe for larger chromosomes than smaller chromosomes (it is more likely that there are more important dosage sensitive genes on that chromosome)
- Severe imbalance leads to in-viability
What are two reasons why monosomy of autosomes is inviable?
- Many genes are haploinsufficient so 50% of gene activity is not enough for function
- When there is only one copy of a chromosome many recessive mutations on chromosomes will cause problems as there is not a second chromosome to compensate
Why are autosomal aneuploids more frequent among offspring of older women?
- The maternal age effect:
The spindle may be less efficient with the aging of the cells
What is Down Syndrome?
Trisomy 21:
- most common and least detrimental autosomal trisomy
- Low IQ
- Characteristic facial features (broad flat face)
- Short stature
- Congenital heart disease and Alzheimers
- Lifespan 60 years
- Region 21q22.2 is the down sydrome critical region
What is Edward’s Sydrome?
Trisomy 18:
- Growth failure
- Skull elongation
- Mental retardation
- Life span (few days to few months)
What is Patau Sydrome?
Trisomy 13:
- Growth failure
- Cleft palate
- Harelip
- Polydactyly
- Life span (few days to few months)
Why are aneuploidies of sex chromosomes less severe than autosomal aneuplodies?
- X-inactivation of most of excess X chromosomes
- Very few genes on Y chromosome
- Phenotype is mainly from pseduoautosomal regions of X and Y (not inactivated in X)
What are the 4 common Sex chromosome Aneuploidies?
- Turner Syndrome:
45, X, Female: Viable, non-fertile (ovaries degenerate)
Phenotype: short, webbed neck - Triple X:
47, XXX, Female: Viable, fertile - Klinefelter Syndrome:
47, XXY, Male: Viable, non-fertile (testes from but no spermatogonia)
Phenotype: tall, slightly lower IQ, small testes, female pattern body hair - Double Y:
47, XYY, Male: Viable, fertile
How do double Y and triple X individuals produce normal gametes?
- During early development of the germ cells the normal karyotype is restored
- This occurs because the extra sex chromosome is lost through non-disjunction or lagging during early mitosis
What is uniparental disomy?
- Both pairs of a homologous chromosome are inherited from one parent
- Usually originates as a trisomy, zygote has 2 copies of chromosome from one parent and one copy from the other
- One of the copies is lost (the copy from the parent that only contributed one)
- Therefore the child has inherited both copies of chromosome from one parent
- If the N.D in one parent is in meiosis II and they are a carrier of an recessive disorder this can result in the child being affected with only one parent being a carrier
Can aneuploidy occur during mitosis?
- Yes
- Change is permanent and present in all descendent cells
- Leads to a mosaic organism
What are the 4 common types of changes in chromosome structure?
- Deletion (segment missing)
- Duplication (segment is repeated
- Inversion (change in direction of genetic material along region of chromosome)
- Translocation (segment of one chromsome becomes attached to a different chromosome- or different site on the same chromosome)
What are the results of chromosome structure changes?
- An abnormal chromosome only survives mitosis/meiosis if it still have one centromere and two telomeres
- Rearrangements can be:
1. Balanced: no gain or loss of genetic material, chromosome complement is complete. Often harmless unless breakpoint disrupts vital gene. Heterozygotes at risk of producing offspring with unbalanced complement
- Unbalanced: gain or loss of genetic material- serious effect on organism