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chpt 7.6-7.7 test Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

genome organization refers to…

A

the sequential structure of a genome

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2
Q

the human genome is composed of…

A

coding and non coding regions

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3
Q

what % of the human genome codes for proteins? what is the remaining genome composed of?

A

2%. The remaining genome is composed of introns within genes and repeating sequences between genes.

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4
Q

the eukaryotic genome contains…

A

-transposons (transposable elements of DNA)
-pseudogenes (non-coding sequences, similar to existing genes).

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5
Q

The discipline of comparative genomics seeks to understand…

A

the genetic relationship between all forms of life on Earth

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6
Q

the declining cost and increasing efficiency of genomic technologies raises…

A

numerous ethical questions about the use of genomic information

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7
Q

HUMAN GENOME PROJECT

A

the joint government and private actor research project that sequences the human genome

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8
Q

VARIABLE NUMBER TANDEM REPEATS (VNTRs)

A

non-coding, repeating sequences of DNA that vary in length between homologous chromosomes and between individuals

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9
Q

LINEs (LONG INTERSPERSED NUCLEAR ELEMENTS)

A

repetitive DNA sequences, approx. 6500 bp in length on average, interspersed throughout the genome

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10
Q

SIGNs (SHORT INTERSPERSED NUCLEAR ELEMENTS)

A

repetitive DNA sequences, approx. 500 bp in length on average, interspersed throughout the genome

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11
Q

TRANSPOSON

A

a small segment of DNA that can move to a different position in the genome and insert themselves into different chromosomes.

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12
Q

PSEUDOGENE

A

a sequence of DNA that is similar to an existing gene but does not code for proteins

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13
Q

COMPARATIVE GENOMICS

A

study of the organization, functions, and relationships of the genomes of different species

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14
Q

Human DNA is found in…

A

the nucleus of human cells in duplicate.

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15
Q

Each human nucleus contains…

A

two copies of the 22 autosomal chromosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.

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16
Q

each autosomal chromosome is numbered by size from…

A

1 to 22 (+each gene has two copies, known as alleles, that may be identical or different)

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17
Q

each allele of a given gene resides at…

A

the same locus on both homologous chromosomes.

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18
Q

how many scientists from around the world collaborated to sequence the genetic code?

A

over 200

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19
Q

genome organization refers to…

A

the sequential organization of the genome

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20
Q

introns are non-coding regions in genes and occupy what % of genome?

A

24%

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21
Q

what % of genome occupies spaces between genes?

A

almost 75%

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22
Q

what % of the total genome consists of repeated sequences that are non-functional

A

more than 50%

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23
Q

in eukaryotes, non coding regions are filled with

A

variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs), also known as microsatellites. (sequences of base pairs that repeat over and over again. lengths and positions of VNTRs vary. # of these non-coding regions in an organism’s genome is proportional to the complexity of the organism)

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24
Q

long repetitive non-coding DNA sequences are used as a…

A

defense mechanism against the shortfalls of DNA replication

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25
Q

telomeres are…

A

non-coding regions at the ends of chromosomes that preserve coding DNA from being lost during replication

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26
Q

repetitive DNA sequences are also found near the — and play a role during —

A

centromeres, cell division

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27
Q

two more types of repetitive DNA sequences that are found in the genome:

A

LINEs (long interspersed nuclear elements) and SINEs (short interspersed nuclear elements)

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28
Q

Pseudogenes are thought to be — of older genes and remain in the genome but —.

A

mutated versions, serve no function

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29
Q

With the human genome sequenced, scientists have begun to compare it with the genomes of other…

A

species to determine the molecular basis of differences in anatomy, physiology, and developmental patterns between species.

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30
Q

Species comparisons may reveal…

A

the mutational changes that have driven the evolution of our species and many others.

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31
Q

Comparative genomics the study of…

A

the organization, functions, and relationships of the genomes of different species

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32
Q

-% of sea urchin genes have a human gene counterpart

A

70%

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33
Q

-% of fruit fly genes have a human gene counterpart.

A

40%

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34
Q

Sea urchin’s genome that codes for its immune system is — — than the immune system section of the human genome

A

more complex

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35
Q

Comparative genomics also includes the study of individual sequences of DNA. The differences in genes and gene fragments in different species can be analyzed to understand…

A

how cell functions vary from one organism to another

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36
Q

Viruses have small genomes that consist of only…

A

RNA or DNA

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37
Q

viruses rely on their host’s genetic machinery to…

A

replicate themselves

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38
Q

Many errors are made by a virus’s polymerase enzymes, especially those of the influenza A virus. As a result, there is a…

A

very high mutation rate

39
Q

Retrovirus: A retrovirus what enzyme to do what?

A

-reverse transcriptase to transcribe its RNA genome into DNA

40
Q

Retrovirus: The viral DNA is then incorporated into the host’s genome by an enzyme called —, then transcribed and translated to produce —-. These proteins and RNA are used to assemble —-.

A

integrase, virus proteins and viral RNA, new virus particles

41
Q

Viruses have what types of applications?

A

research and therapeutic

42
Q

TRANSDUCTION is the

A

use of viral vectors to introduce new genetic material into an existing cell

43
Q

REVERSE TRANSCRIPTASE is

A

a viral enzyme that uses RNA as a template strand to synthesize complementary DNA

44
Q

RETROVIRUS is

A

a virus that uses reverse transcriptase for replication (related to HIV)

45
Q

Virology is the branch of biology that studies…

A

viruses

46
Q

Viruses contain a protective protein coat surrounding a core of nucleic acid (strands of DNA or RNA) that stores the…

A

hereditary information needed for the virus to reproduce inside a living cell.

47
Q

The amount of hereditary information stored in a virus is —. The type of nucleic acid may be a ….

A

incredibly small, single strand of DNA or a single strand of RNA or a double strand of DNA or a double strand of RNA

48
Q

T/F: Viruses exist that can infect virtually any type of cell: animal, plant or bacteria

A

True

49
Q

Viruses are not capable of living independently outside of cells. They must —— for survival and reproduction.

A

invade cells and use the host cell’s machinery

50
Q

outside a cell, viruses are…

A

dormant

51
Q

T/F: Viruses differ structurally from prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

A

True

52
Q

Viruses are not cellular, so they have no…

A

cytoplasm, membrane-bound organelles, or cell membranes

53
Q

Viruses cause disease in plants and animals, which can affect…

A

populations, species, and ecosystems

54
Q

In bacteriophages and most other viruses, the nucleic acid is…

A

DNA, the molecule found in human and bacterial chromosomes. DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is composed of adenine, thymine, guanine and cytosine. The 5-carbon sugar is deoxyribose.

55
Q

Some viruses contain — instead of DNA

A

RNA. RNA (ribonucleic acid) contains adenine, uracil, guanine and cytosine. The 5-carbon sugar is ribose.

56
Q

The RNA virus contains a few molecules of a specialized enzyme. The difference between the two types of viruses is small but significant:

A

RNA viruses are generally much more serious than those carried by DNA viruses

57
Q

Scientists develop vaccines and new treatments to fight…

A

viral infections

58
Q

Viruses are also used in biotechnology to..

A

clone copies of genes

59
Q

One of the methods used by scientists to classify viruses is the size and shape
of the…

A

capsid

60
Q

A capsid is a…

A

protein covering around the central core of a virus particle and provides protection to the nucleic acid. In some viruses, the capsid is enclosed in a membrane.

61
Q

Virus particles contain the genetic information needed to make copies of itself but they lack the…

A

metabolic machinery to put the information to work. The host cell supplies this machinery

62
Q

Viruses that infect humans are currently classified into how many groups. These groups differ ion what?

A

21, their genomes, or sets of genes, and their method of replication

63
Q

Replication is a fundamental process of all cells, in which…

A

the genetic material is copied before the cell reproduces

64
Q

Lytic cycle is the replication process in viruses in which…

A

the virus’s genetic material uses the copying machinery of the host cell to make new viruses

65
Q

Lysogenic cycle is the replication process in viruses in which…

A

the viral DNA enters the host cell’s chromosome; it may remain dormant and later activate and instruct the host cell to produce more viruses

66
Q

(in lysogenic) The viral DNA that has become part of the host chromosome is then referred to as a…

A

provirus. A provirus can invade a cell, but does not kill it.

67
Q

One of the most efficient ways to kill bacteria is to…

A

infect them with viruses. Viruses that destroy bacteria are called bacteriophages.

68
Q

Life Cycle of a Bacteriophage

A

1- bacteriophage locks onto the bacterium’s cell wall + deposits their DNA inside the cytoplasm.
2- The viral DNA then controls the functioning of the bacterium’s cell parts.
3- Even though the number of genes of a phage virus is small, the DNA they contain is enough to prevent the host bacterial cell from performing its normal life functions.

69
Q

Viral genes redirect the host cell from producing the materials it needs to perform only three functions:

A
  1. Manufacturing hundreds of copies of viral DNA
  2. Producing new proteins for viral protein coats
  3. Producing a powerful enzyme that dissolves the bacterium’s cell wall.
70
Q

When the DNA and the protein coats have been assembled, the newly formed phage viruses burst, infecting…

A

nearby cells and repeating the cycle.

71
Q

The Lytic Cycle Steps

A
  1. Attachment: A phage virus attaches itself to a host bacterial cell.
  2. Entry: The phage’s DNA is injected inside the bacterium.
  3. Replication: The host cell replicates the phage DNA and produces phage protein coats.
  4. Assembly: The phage cells are assembled inside the bacterium cell.
  5. Lysis and Release: The host cell is destroyed and the phage cells are released.
72
Q

The Lysogenic Cycle Steps

A
  1. Attachment: A phage virus attaches itself to a host bacterial cell.
  2. Entry: The phage’s DNA is injected inside the bacterium.
  3. Provirus Formation: viral DNA becomes part of the host cell’s chromosome for many generations.
73
Q

Comparisons: fate of host DNA after infection of virus

A

Lytic Cycle- Takes over host DNA
Lysogenic Cycle- Becomes part of DNA

74
Q

Comparisons: Incubation time in host

A

Lytic Cycle- Release of new viruses after one generation of host activity
Lysogenic Cycle- Release of new viruses after several generations of host activity

75
Q

Comparisons: Onset of viral disease symptoms

A

Lytic Cycle- Immediate
Lysogenic Cycle- Delayed

76
Q

three fundamental classes of viruses:

A

DNA viruses, retroviruses, and RNA viruses.

77
Q

DNA viruses- store genetic material as —- and replicate their — in a manner similar to — cells

A

DNA, DNA, human

78
Q

Retroviruses and RNA viruses- store their genetic material as —.

A

RNA

79
Q

Retroviruses reproduce by first…

A

converting their RNA into DNA in infected cells, and then converting this DNA back into RNA.

80
Q

RNA viruses have the unique ability to…

A

directly reproduce their RNA to create new RNA virus offspring through a process known as RNA replication. (This ability to directly duplicate RNA distinguishes RNA viruses from DNA viruses and retroviruses and, importantly, from human cells. )

81
Q

—- are by far the most abundant viruses in nature

A

RNA viruses

82
Q

Viral DNA interrupts this sequence by…

A

deactivating the host’s cell mRNA and forcing the host ribosomes to produce viral proteins instead of those needed by itself.

83
Q

Interruption of the Production of a Host’s Protein Synthesis by DNA Virus

A
  • Viral DNA released into host celL
  • Replication of viral DNA
  • Deactivates mRNA of host cell
  • Makes viral mRNA using host cell materials
  • Host ribosomes “read” viral mRNA code
  • Ribosomes produce viral protein
84
Q

For RNA viruses, the transcription step is unnecessary but most encode a special enzyme, —- to catalyze replication of the RNA

A

RNA replicase

85
Q

Some RNA viruses lyse their hosts but many…

A

escape from their hosts without lysing them

86
Q

Interruption of the Production of a Host’s Protein Synthesis by RNA Virus:

A
  • Viral RNA released into host cell
  • Replication of viral RNA
  • Deactivates mRNA of host cell
  • RNA serves as mRNA
  • Host ribosomes “read” viral mRNA code
    -Ribosomes produce viral protein
87
Q

Before certain RNA viruses can take over a host’s machinery, the viral RNA must be converted into… + What enzyme carries out this process

A
  • a form that the cell’s ribosomes can recognize.
  • reverse transcriptase carries out this process (catalyzes formation of a cDNA copy of the viral RNA. Therefore –> reversing the usual DNA-to-RNA sequence)
88
Q

This ability makes RNA retroviruses is especially lethal since…

A

the retroviral DNA produced by the enzyme often splice itself into the host’s DNA

89
Q

The host’s chromosomes will contain DNA copies of the retroviral genes, which may lay dormant/latent for…

A

months or years before becoming active.

90
Q

The absence of a protein coat allows…

A

foreign genes to go unrecognized; so no antibody production occurs..

91
Q

what occurs during the latency period?

A

-the retroviral DNA remains dormant and the individual looks and feels healthy.
-nothing can remove the spliced genes and every time the host undergoes mitosis, the retroviral DNA divides too. (number of infected cells increases, reproduce)

92
Q

When the dormant genes become active again, the infected cell will produce and release…

A

retroviruses with protein coats

93
Q

Generally, retroviruses do not lyse their hosts but instead leave by —-, a process similar to budding. (virus is enveloped in a segment of the cell membrane as it emerges from the cell. The immune system is stimulated since the protein coats are foreign + production of antibodies begins.

A

extrusion

94
Q

The number of infected cells and the number of retroviruses may be very large at the time of release causing…

A
  • an overload on the immune system. - host organism may become very sick or die before enough antibodies can be made to counteract the retroviruses

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