CHP 37 Flashcards

1
Q

The four main concepts that have been widely used in relation to the periodic financial accounts of all businesses are:

A
  1. “Going concern” concept
  2. “Accruals” concept: revenue and costs are recognized as they are earned or incurred, not as money is received.
  3. “Consistency” concept: Consistency of accounting treatment of items within each accounting period and between different periods.
  4. “Prudence” concept: revenue and profits are not anticipated and provision is made for all known liabilities – whether these are known with certainty or best estimate. This concept should be free from deliberate or systematic bias.
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2
Q
  1. Accounting concepts
A

Prudence can be described as the inclusion of a degree of caution in the exercise of judgment in conditions of uncertainty, such that gains are not overstated and losses are not understated.
Thus the greater the uncertainty, the greater the tendency to aim at technical provisions exceeding the expected value of liabilities. This is as a neutral consequence of seeking to avoid understating liabilities.
Market-consistent liability valuation methods reflect risk and uncertainty on the basis of an arm’s length transactions between knowledgeable, willing parties.

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3
Q

To interpret accounts, one has to be familiar with:

A
  • Rules governing the preparation of accounts

* Accounting rules and conventions that apply in the country concerned.

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4
Q
  1. Interpreting the accounts of financial service providers
A

Usually a going concern basis is used to aim to reflect true and fair value.
The accounts should be examined to see the effects of changes in accounting practice.
Pay attention to the basis used to value assets and the treatment in accounts of realized and unrealized capital gains and losses.
If assets are shown at market value – consider the variability of these values due to changing markets.
Reports accompanying the accounts may reveal the extent to which the results for the latest period have been affected by exceptional events – occurred and not occurred.

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5
Q
  1. Interpreting the accounts of financial service providers

2. 1. Insurance companies

A

Insurance business is subject to cyclical effects. Thus compare one provider’s profitability with another that transacts similar business.
In practice it is often hard to prepare accounts in accordance with the consistency principle because of uncertainty in determining the various items in the accounts, in particular provisions.
Profit can change from changing provision bases.
It may be possible to get an indication of the strength of provisions by examining individual accounting items (gross and net of reinsurance if available) and various ratios on one to another. Compare these with that from earlier years.
The amount of detail in the financial statements will dictate the feasibility of this.

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6
Q

Accounting ratios to be considered:

A

• Incurred expenses to premium income
• Commission to premium income
• Operating ratio
A sharp rise in premium income may be a sign of competitively low, and possibly unprofitable, premium rates.

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7
Q

Why benefit scheme reporting is different

A

Benefit schemes do not generate profits or losses.
Valuation of a benefit schemes generates a number for accumulated surplus or deficit. This amount may then be used to adjust the contribution rates for the succeeding period.

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8
Q

Disclosure – beneficiaries

A
Disclosure to beneficiaries (regarding their entitlements) is prescribed by legislation in many countries.  This is done to attempt to improve the security of non-State pensions.
Disclosure could include details of the:
•	Benefit entitlement
•	Contribution obligations
•	Expense charges
•	Investment strategy
•	Risks involved
•	Treatment of entitlements in the event of insolvency
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9
Q

Disclosure – regulation

A

Guidance or legislation on disclosure of information is important to ensure beneficiaries are not misled – intentionally or unintentionally.
Where disclosure is required by legislation, this may relate to information given to beneficiaries:
• On entry
• At regular intervals
• Once payments commence
• On request
• A combination of the above

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10
Q

Disclosure – benefit providers

A

Well designed info can help encourage individuals to make non-State benefit provision.
The form of benefit will largely dictate the level of understanding by members. Even so, there are many different ways of presenting the benefits that could clarify it for the members.
Poor disclosure could lead to false expectations by members about future benefits, this will lead to problems for the providers.

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11
Q

Disclosure – owners of benefit providers

A

The owners of the provider (owner of the sponsoring company) should be aware of the financial significance of the benefit obligations that exist. It is common practice in many countries to include these financial obligations in the company’s formal accounts.
In presenting benefit costs in the accounts it is important that the readers of the accounts are able to form a realistic opinion of the company’s current and future financial position.

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12
Q

A number of different accounting standards exist, but the common aim of most attempt to achieve:

A
  • Recognizing the realistic costs of accruing benefits
  • Avoid distortions resulting from fluctuations in the flow of contributions from the employer to the pension scheme
  • Consistency in the accounting treatment from year to year (not necessarily from company to company)
  • Disclosure of appropriate info
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13
Q

A number of different accounting standards exist, but the common aim of most attempt to achieve:
Differences that exist relate to the:

A
  • Emphasis on the relative importance of the balance sheet and the income statements in demonstrating a true financial picture
  • Choice of actuarial methodology
  • Flexibility in setting of assumptions
  • Smoothing of year on year fluctuations
  • Amount of information to be disclosed
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14
Q

Possible disclosure requirements that may be needed include the:

A
  • Assumptions used
  • Actuarial method used
  • Value of liabilities accruing over the year
  • Increase in the past service liabilities at the start of the year
  • Investment return achieved on the assets over the year
  • Surplus / deficit over the year
  • Change in the surplus / deficit over the year
  • Benefit cost over the year in respect of any directors
  • Membership movements
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15
Q

If companies spend more, what can it lead to?

A

Increased employment

Growth, but time lag before between increased investments and this

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16
Q

What effect in consumer banks will lowering the short term interest rate have

A

Reduction in credit card (debt servicing) interest rates
Lower borrowing costs
Lower savings rate

17
Q

Why might a lowering of interest rates not help increase consumer spending?

A

If confidence very low

18
Q

What effects does a lower exchange rate have on companies?

A

Exports more competitive
Raw materials more expensive
Supply side inflation in imported goods
Increased competitiveness of domestically made goods

19
Q

What other reasons would you reduce interest rates?

A
Pressure from government
Decrease exchange rate
Global tendencies
Restore confidence in property market
Increase inflation to the desired band
20
Q

When thinking about effects of a change in interest rates on assets prices (demand/supply), what are the most important things

A
Growth (hence profits)
Short term yield 
Long term yield
Long term inflation
Inflation uncertainty
Exchange rate
Borrowing costs
21
Q

How is the short term yield on government bonds related to money market instruments?

A

Money market instruments effected by short term interest rates. So yield goes the same way as short term interest rates

22
Q

If interest rates decrease, what happens to yield hence price on government/corporate bonds

A

Increase in yield, decrease in price of short term bonds

23
Q

If long term inflation expectations increase what happens to the yield on long term government bonds?

A

Yield decreases, but not as much as short term. So price increases, but not as much as short term, due to inflation risk

24
Q

What happens to the price of index linked government bonds with a decrease in interest rates?

A

More demands as long term inflation uncertainty, price increases

25
Q

What extra effect on corporate bonds would a lowering of interest rates have over government bonds?

A

Growth increases, profitability increases, so default risk decreases, yield over government bonds decreases

26
Q

How are equities affected by a change in interest rates?

A

Growth so profitablity increases, so equity level increases
dividend level increases, nominal and real
Uncertain inflation leads to demand for hedging that risk, so equity demand increases and level does, compared to bonds
Exchange rate decreases so exporters profits increase and importers decrease

27
Q

How is property affected by a decrease in short term interest rates (think about mortgages)

A

Growth increase, employment increases, demand for commercial and industrial property increases
Cost of borrowing decrease, prices increase
Supply stays the same, demand increases, so price increases
Expected inflation increase, this is a hedge of inflation, so demand increases and prices
O/S demand increases so price increases

28
Q

First approaches to managing enterprise risk (multi business unit company)

A

1) Determine overall risk appetite, divide amongst business units
2) Let the management teams of the business units manage their risks dependent on the allocated RA
3) No allowance for diversification
4) Allow for diversification by allowing allocated RA’s to be 130% of overall RA

29
Q

Second approach to managing Enterprise risk

A

1) Set up group risk management function at enterprise level
2) Do similar risk assessments on all business units to combine into entity level risk assessment model
3) This shows where we have too much or too little risk
4) It is important to business planning and capital allocation cycles

30
Q

Post loss funding

A

In exchange for a commitment fee, funding will be provided on the occurrence of a specified loss.
Funding will be on a loan on a pre-arranged terms or equity