Chemistry IB SL Exam: Paper 3 Flashcards
How does polarity affect bioavailbility? 3
(a) Describe the differences in the ways that bacteria and viruses multiply. 2
bacteria multiply by cell division/binary fission/mitosis;
viruses insert DNA/RNA/genetic material into cells; 2
For “bacteria multiply by themselves but viruses require a host
cell”/OWTTE award [1].
Define Ionising Radiation: 1-2
Isotopes undergoing the emission of alpha particles, beta particles and gamma particles radiation with enough energy so that during an interaction with an atom, it can remove tightly bound electrons from the orbit of an atom, causing the atom to become charged or ionized.
State the names of two functional groups present in acetaminophen (paracetamol) and one functional group present in ibuprofen. 3
acetaminophen (paracetamol)
acetaminophen (paracetamol):
amide;
hydroxy(l)/phenol/alcohol;
Ibuprofen:
carboxylic acid;
Describe the effect on the individual of consuming depressants at moderate and high doses.
at moderate doses sedation/soothing/reduction of anxiety/impaired judgement;
at higher doses induce sleep/unconsciousness / extremely high dose may cause
death/organ failure;
Define Parental Administration: 2
Any injections that has lead any route other than the gut Includes injection, pulmonary and topical route
Describe the colour change that occurs to the acidified dichromate(VI) if ethanol is present in the breath.
orange to green
Fluoxetine hydrochloride (Prozac®) is a common depressant. Depressants have many therapeutic uses.
State three other common depressants.
diazepam/Valium®;
nitrazepam/Mogadon®;
alcohol/ethanol;
Define Lead Optimization:
When chemical structures of drugs are modified to improve on fixating on a specific target
Police use the intoximeter, an infrared spectrophotometer to confirm a roadside breathalyser test. Explain how the amount of ethanol is determined from the infrared spectrum.
peak at 2950 cm–1/ absorption occurs due to C–H bonds in ethanol;
No mark for absorption due to just ethanol, or O–H bond in ethanol (water vapour in breath also contributes).
intensity / height of peak / absorption / amount of transmittance depends
on amount of ethanol / compare absorption to standard / reference/
control sample / sample containing no alcohol;
(ii) State the general names of the two functional groups attached to the benzene ring in a molecule of aspirin. 2
(ii) carboxylic (acid)/alkanoic (acid); ester; 2
Define Diamorphine:
Another term for heroin
The wider the therapeutic window, the safer or dangerous the drug?
safer
(a) Sodium hydrogencarbonate, NaHCO3, and magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2, can both be used as antacids.
(i) Give the equations for the reactions of sodium hydrogencarbonate and magnesium hydroxide with hydrochloric acid.
NaHCO₃ + HCl → NaCl + H₂O + CO₂;
Accept H2CO3 instead of H₂O and CO₂.
Mg(OH)₂ + 2HCl → MgCl₂ + 2H₂O;
How many more dose do you need of the same same drug administered intraveneously?
4x
Explain the meaning of the terms:
(i) side-effect
an effect produced in addition to the one intended / unwanted/
undesired effect;
Define Mild Analgesics: 2
A substance that alleviates moderate pain It works by inhibiting the production of chemical messengers that causes the sensation of pain, swelling and fever
Define Pulmonary administration of drugs: 2-3
A method of absorbing drugs by administering it to the lungs in forms of gas or volatile liquidsor aerosol/dry powder inhalers The lungs have a very large surface area so absorption of the drug into the blood is very fast and has fats onset action Useful for treatment of asthma
Define Preventing the virus from leaving the host cell:
The virus is stuck within the host cell and is unable to spread
Define Codeine:
A pain reliever, used for moderate pain Found naturally in opium but in smaller proportions
Define Penicillin:
A type of antibiotic medicine that treats different types of infections and diseases.
Define Ranitidine: 2
A drug that helps reduce stomach acid production by inhibiting the production of acid from the parietal cells of the stomach Also named Zantac
Define Psychological Dependence: 2
When the body requires the drug in order to feel good, the drug user craves for the drug if deprived of it for a short time and must get further supplies in order to satisfy their need
Explain why alginates and dimethicone are often included in antacid tablets.
Alginates:
provide a neutralizing layer on top of the stomach contents / to
prevent acid rising up the esophagus / prevents acid reflux/heartburn;
Dimethicone:
as an anti-foaming agent / to prevent flatulence/gas/bloating;
Define Esterification:
The reaction of carboxylic acids to esters using acid and alcohols Alcohol + Acid to make ester
What are advantages for strong analgesics? 4
Describe the different ways in which mild and strong analgesics prevent pain. 4
strong analgesics:
strong analgesics they bond to receptor sites in the brain;
pain signals within brain/spinal cord blocked; 4
Define Dyspepsia:
Indigestion
Define β-Lactam: 1-2
A class of broad-spectrum antibiotics consisting of different types of agents β-lactam antibiotics are a class of broad-spectrum antibiotics, consisting of all antibiotic agents that contain a beta-lactam ring in their molecular structures. This includes penicillin derivatives, cephalosporins, monobactams, and carbapenems.
Define Therapeutic Index: 3
The ratio of the toxic doe to the therapeutic dose it relates the dose of a drug required to produce a desire therapeutic effect Expressed solely in terms of TD₅₀ because LD₅₀ on humans is not possible
Uses of Aspirin
Anticoagulant
Anti-inflammatory
Painkiller
Why is Patient Compliance important?
Otherwise failure to kill all the bacteria in the infection can lead to development of resistance in those bacteria that survive.
Question: 20. (a) Lysergic acid diethylamide (also known as LSD or “acid”) and mescaline are
both mind-altering drugs. State one effect caused by both substances and one effect
caused by LSD or mescaline only. (Specify the substance which causes the effect.) 2
cause changes in visual and sound perception/hallucinations;
LSD may cause a permanent effect of “flashbacks”/effects of LSD
may be experienced a year or more after the last use of the drug/
psychological dependence; 2
OR
mescaline may cause nausea/trembling/liver damage/reduce appetite;
Aspirin and paracetamol (acetaminophen) are mild analgesics.
(i) State one advantage of aspirin and one disadvantage of paracetamol (acetaminophen).
Advantage of aspirin:
prevents (recurrence of) heart attack/stroke / anticoagulant / reduces
fever/inflammation;
Do not accept increased toxicity when consumed with ethanol.
Do not accept the same argument for advantage of aspirin and
disadvantage of paracetamol.
Do not accept answers which refer to disease (i.e. reduces heart
disease, causes kidney disease) or cancer.
Penalize additional incorrect answers if more than one advantage
or disadvantage is stated.
Define Phase II: 3
Clinical trials where the drug is tested on a small number of volunteer patients who have the disease or the condition that the drug intends on healing This stage establishes whether or not the drug is effective in these patients and also identifies any side effects If the drug is deemed safe and effective, the drug enters Phase 3
Strong analgesic are given for? 3
Question: 1. (a) Many drugs are taken orally. State three other ways in which drugs may be taken by a patient. 2
Answer: 1. (a) rectally/by suppository, by inhalation, by injection (parenterally), by applying to skin/topically; 2
(b) A modern method for accurately determining the amount of ethanol in breath uses an
intoximeter. Describe how an intoximeter works. 3
sample of breath passed into infrared spectrometer;
ethanol in breath absorbs because of C-H bond;
compares breath with air/reference sample with no ethanol; 3
Identify the method of administration used to treat respiratory diseases such as asthma.
inhalation/breathing it in;
Define Physical Dependence:
When the body cannot function without the drug so the user must keep taking the drug to avoid withdrawal effects
Why are viruses considered non-living? 2
What are the sub levels of low level radioactive waste?
A, B, C, and >C
Outline what is meant by the term synergistic effect of ethanol using a suitable example.
ethanol can interact with / enhance the effect of other drugs;
with aspirin increased bleeding of the stomach lining/peptic ulcers or
other suitable example and their effect, such as sedatives, tranquilisers;
Aspiri is a strong or mild analgesic?
mild
One problem associated with ethanol consumption is an increased risk of traffic accidents. Police in many countries use a breathalyser to test drivers. The breathalyser contains potassium dichromate(VI).
Describe the colour change of potassium dichromate(VI) when it reacts with ethanol.
orange to green;
Why cant we use strong bases for antacids?
They are harmful for the body
Define Morphine:
A pain reliver, used for moderate to severe pain Accounts for 10% of the opium mixture
Talk about cultural factors as a sociocultural problem.
Explain why effective treatment of AIDS with antiviral drugs is difficult. 2
HIV virus mutates rapidly;
HIV metabolism linked to that of host cell/HIV uses host cell;
Drugs harm host cell as well as HIV/difficult to target HIV without damaging host cell; 2
What do alginates do?
Suggest why compounds such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide cannot be used as an antacid.
strong base / corrosive / harmful to the body;
Identify one other effect of a drug which must be determined during clinical trials.
LD50 / ED50;
Or
risk:benefit ratio;
Or
side-effects;
Or
tolerance;
what is the beta lactam ring in penicillums composed of?
Mild analgesics such as aspirin, and strong analgesics such as opiates, differ not only in their potency but also in the ways they act on the central nervous system.
(a) Describe how mild and strong analgesics provide pain relief.
Mild analgesics:
suppress the production of prostaglandins/pain-sensitizing substances /
intercept the pain stimulus at the source
Define Chemical Modification:
The act of having protein reacting with a chemical reagent
What is side effects of taking an opiate analgesic? 2
State with a reason whether chromium in potassium dichromate(VI) is oxidised or reduced by ethanol.
reduced because oxidation number of Cr decreases / Cr gains electrons;
Explanation needed for mark.
What are the reasons for making a drug in a different form to that of the active metabolite?
To avoid side effects To allow the drug to pass through cell membranes – the active form of omezarole is charged and would not pass through the cell membrane into the parietal cells; diamorphine is another drug that fits into this category To allow the drug to dissolve in water more easily — e.g. fosphenytoin To target drugs to a particular area – for example, omeprazole again, where the active drug is formed only in the highly acidic conditions of the cells in the stomach lining
When medicines are in the blood, what is the solubility property that is important?
aqueous solubility
Two substances commonly used in antacid tablets are magnesium hydroxide and aluminium hydroxide.
(a) State an equation to represent a neutralization reaction with one of the above antacids.
Al(OH)₃ + 3HCl → AlCl₃ + 3H₂O
or
Mg(OH)₂ + 2HCl → MgCl₂ + 2H₂O
Define Carboxyl (Carboxylic Acid):
A functional group that consists of a double bonded oxygen to a hydroxyl group (COOH)
tolerance.
person needs to take ever larger quantities of a drug to gain
the original effect;
What does it mean when two drugs increase each other’s effects when taken together?
synergistic effect
Drugs can be what? 4
Relatively crude preparations, obtained by extracting plant or animal materials Pure compounds isolated from natural sources Semi-synthetic compounds, produced by chemical modifications of pure natural compounds Synthetic compounds
Define Active Metabolites:
The active forms of drugs after they have been processed in the body
Explain why dimethicone is added to some antacids.
as an anti-foaming agent
Or
to prevent problem in (c)
Or
to prevent flatulence;
Suggest a reagent that could be used to convert morphine into diamorphine and state the name of the type of reaction taking place.
ethanoic acid / ethanoic anhydride / ethanoyl chloride;
Accept formula instead of name
diesterification / esterification / condensation;
Morphine with ethanoic acid makes what?
diamorphine
When a drug is given to a patient orally, is the bioavailability 100%?
No
Define Side Effect: 2
An unintended secondary effect of the drug on the body; it is usually an undesirable effect. For example, morphine is a strOng analgesic used to treat pain, but I some patients it can cause constipation, nausea and vomiting
Define high level waste?
Has a high activity (many radioactive nuclei decay each second to produce ionising radiation) and usually contains isotopes with longer half-lives (ionising radiation is given off for a long time)
Define Lead Compounds:
A chemical compound that is likely to be therapeutically useful, however it may need some modifications to fit the suited target
What are antibiotics? 4
What’s the most common side effect of aspirin?
the bleeding of the stomach lining
What are 2 examples of strong analgesics?
Morphine and codeine
Is the bioavaility of zanamivir affected if injested orally?
no
Explain how a strong analgesic such as morphine prevents pain. 2
(temporarily) bond to receptor sites in the brain/CNS;
prevent the transmission of pain impulses;
Define Methoxyl:
A radical used in medicinal chemistry, analogous to hydroxyl
Question: 2. One common type of drug taken orally is the antacid. Antacids such as sodium hydrogencarbonate are taken to reduce stomach acidity. (i) State the names of two metals, other than sodium, whose compounds are often used in antacids. 1
magnesium/Mg, aluminium/Al, calcium/Ca; 1
Compare the effectiveness of 1.00 g of sodium hydrogencarbonate to 0.50 g of magnesium hydroxide in combating acidity in the stomach. 3
n(NaHCO₃) = 1.19 × 10–2 mol;
n(Mg(OH)₂) = 8.57 × 10–3 mol;
Mg(OH)₂ reacts with twice the number of moles of acid / is
more effective than NaHCO₃ / OWTTE;
Explain why anti-foaming agents are added and state one example. 2
prevent flatulence/(stomach) bloating / OWTTE;
dimethicone / polydimethylsiloxane/PDMS;
Define Tolerance:
When the body becomes less responsive to the effects of a drug, and so larger and larger does or need to produce the same effect
Who discovered penicillum?
What are examples of depressants that people become dependent on? 3
Diazepam (Valium) nitrazepam (Mogadon) alcohol
What are antacids? 4
Define Tolerance: 1-3
When the body becomes less responsive to the effects of a drug, and so larger and larger does or need to produce the same effect May develop for two reasons: repeated use of the drug stimulates increased metabolism of the drug – the body is able to prepare the drug more quickly for excretion so that lower levels remain in the body to cause an effect. Or The body may adapt so that it offsets the effects of the drug – for example, by desensitising the target receptors with which the drug binds so that it is not able to produce its effect
Define T-Cells:
A type of white blood cells that circulates our bodies, looking for any threats (infections) Our immune system
Medicines and drugs alter the physiological state of the body including consciousness and coordination.
(a) State one other effect of medicines and drugs on the body.
alters incoming sensory sensations / alters mood or emotions;
What is the systematic name of aspirin?
2-ethanoyloxybenzenecarboxylic acid
Suggest why it is advisable not to drink alcohol when taking other drugs. 2
Any two of the following:
alcohol has a synergistic effect with other drugs;
alcohol depresses central nervous system which alters the effect of other drugs;
increased risk of stomach bleeding with aspirin;
Define Therapeutic:
The treatment of a disease
Define Strong Analgesics: 2
A substance that alleviates extreme/strong pain It works by temporarily binding to opioid receptors in the brain, which blocks the transmission of pain signals to the brain without depressing the central nervous system
he structures of the strong analgesics morphine and heroin (diamorphine) can be found in Table 20 of the Data Booklet.
(i) Identify the amine functional group in the morphine molecule below by drawing a ring around it.
any circle around the nitrogen atom / the nitrogen atom and its three
neighbouring atoms;
What are usuable solvents? 5
Define Analgesics:
Drugs that reduce pain
Define Medicine:
A substance that treats, prevents or alleviates the symptoms of disease
Morphine is a strong analgesic which is administered parenterally.
(i) State the meaning of the term parenteral.
administered by injection;
Define Codeine: 2
A pain reliever, used for moderate pain It is because it is converted into morphine in the body
Define Addiction/Dependence:
The reliance on a substance or drug
Question: 18. (a) State the name of the class of drugs with effects similar to that of adrenaline.
amphetamines/stimulants;
Define Intramuscular Injections: 2
A form of injection that is administered into skeletal muscle (arm, thigh, etc.) Can make the drug injected sustained release if drug is dissolved or suspended in oil
How are antibiotics released into the environment? 3
contrast the different groups in zanamivir and oseltamivir 5
Define Alkaloids:
A class of nitrogenous organic compounds that can affect humans
State the differences between the structures of morphine and diamorphine (heroin). State the names of all functional groups in the molecule of morphine.
Differences:
(two) hydroxy(l)/alcohol and phenol groups are esterified/replaced with
ester/ethanoate/ acet(yl)oxy groups / OWTTE;
Accept formulas instead of group names.
How long is the research and development of new medicines?
The research and development of new medicines is a long and costly process. It usually takes up to 12 years and costs more than $200 million.
Define Vaccines:
A substance used to provide immunity against diseases
Define Prophylactic:
A medicine or drug used to prevent diseases happening in the first place
What are the 3 Clinical Trials for the new drug?
a. Human Pharmacology – testing on small group of healthy volunteers for safety b. Therapeutic Exploratory – evaluates drug’s efficiency and side effects c. Confirmatory Stage – large-scale testing of drug
What are preferred solvents? 5
What are the principles of green chemistry? 12
Prevent waste
Maximize atom economy
Design less hazardous chemical synthesis
Design safer chemicals and processes
Use safer solvents and reaction conditions
Increase energy efficiency
Use renewable products
Avoid chemical derivatives
Design chemicals and products to degrade after use
Analyze in real time to prevent pollution
Minimize the potential for accidents
Define Gastric Irritation: 2
One of the many side effects of Aspirin, depletes the protective mucous layer. This can lead to peptic ulcers and possibly stomach bleeding in some patients
Define Therapeutic Effect:
A desirable and beneficial effect; it alleviates symptoms or treats a particular disease
Define Receptor:
Proteins found on the surface of cells or inside cells that responds when molecules bind to them
Define Placebo 3
Something that looks like the real medicine but does not contain any active drug It is made from inert substance such as starch They are used in clinical trials on new drugs, it is found that people who take placebo feels better even though tey only contain inactive ingredients
What are the sociacultral 4 factors related to the aids problem
What are the commonly used antacids? 4
What are the commonly used antacids? (3) 4 Metal hydroxides, carbonates and hydrocarbonates Magnesium hydroxide 2HCl(aq) + Mg(OH)₂(aq) ⇨ MgCl₂(aq) + 2H₂O(l) Aluminum hydroxide 3HCl(aq) + Al(OH)₃(aq) ⇨ AlCl₃(aq) + 3H₂O(l) Calcium carbonate HCl(aq) + CaCO₃(aq) ⇨ CaCl₂(aq) + H₂O(l) + CO₂(g) Sodium hydrogencarbonate or sodium bicarbonate HCl(aq) + NaHCO₃(aq) ⇨ H₂CO₃(aq) + NaCl(aq)
Define Topical administration of drugs: 2
Applying drug or a substance to the skin in the form of cream, ointments or lotion Used primarily for local effect such as treating acne, dermatitis or skin infection
Question: 19. Diazepam and nitrazepam are two depressants that are very similar in their structures.
State the name of two different functional groups present in both depressants.
amide/ketone/carbonyl;
(tertiary) amine;
Define Buffer solution 2
A solution that resists changes in pH when samll amounts of acids or alkali are added Consists of two components — a weak acid and a conjugate base
Aspirin, paracetamol (acetaminophen), morphine and diamorphine (heroin) are all pain killers.
Their structures are given in Table 20 of the Data Booklet.
(a) Aspirin is thought to interfere with the production of prostaglandins. Explain how this produces an analgesic effect.
prostaglandins are involved in the transmission of pain impulses
(to the brain) / OWTTE;
Penicillums are also _______ antibiotics
beta lactam antibiotics
Mild analgesics such as aspirin, and strong analgesics such as opiates, differ not only in their potency but also in the ways they act on the central nervous system.
(a) Describe how strong analgesics provide pain relief.
Strong analgesics:
bind to (opioid) receptors in the CNS/central nervous system/brain /
suppress the transmission of pain impulses to the brain / OWTTE;
What are side effects of aspirin?
Gastric Irritation — this can lead to peptic ulcers and possibly stomach bleeding in some patients Hypersensitivity — it can trigger an asthma attack Not recommended for children under 16 — it has been associated with Reye’s syndrome, a potentially fatal condition that affects all organs of the body especially the brain and liver
Define Heartburn:
Acid from the stomach rising up into the esophagus causing a burning sensation
Question: 8. The effect of some drugs used to treat cancer depends on geometrical isomerism. One
successful anti-cancer drug is cisplatin, whose formula is PtCl2(NH3)2. Describe the structure of
cisplatin by referring to the following:
- the meaning of the term geometrical isomerism as applied to cisplatin
- diagrams to show the structure of cisplatin and its geometrical isomer
- the types of bonding in cisplatin.
geometrical isomerism — existence of compounds with the same molecular formula but with atoms/groups
or Cl/NH3 arranged differently in space;
both structures correctly labelled as cis and trans;
covalent bonding/shared pairs of electrons;
dative/coordinate/hydrogen/polar bonding;
Talk about resources/medical factors as a sociocultural problem.
Define Bioavailability: 2
The proportion of an administered drug dose that reaches the general blood circulation to get to the site of action If drug is given out by Intravenous Injection, its bioavailability is 100%
(i) Identify the stimulant responsible for addiction to smoking tobacco. 1
nicotine; 1
Explain how heartburn is caused.
acid from the stomach rises into the esophagus;
Define Neuraminidase: 2
Enzymes that create bonds of neuraminic acids required for influenza virus replication
How do antiviral drugs work? 4
Define Small Amounts:
A small quantity of something
Talk about condom use as a sociocultural problem.
What is bioavailability?
What are factoirs that affect the bioavalability? 3
State the name of the type of chemical reaction which is used to convert morphine into diamorphine.
(di)esterification / condensation / (di)acetylation;
The walls of the human stomach contain cells that produce gastric juices. Sodium hydrogencarbonate is an antacid often used to neutralize excess acid.
(a) State an equation for the reaction of stomach acid with this antacid.
NaHCO₃ + HCl → NaCl + H₂O + CO₂ / HCO₃⁻ + H⁺ → H₂O + CO₂;
States not required for mark.
how does oseltamivir and zanamivir work? 3
Diamorphine is produced from what reaction with morphine?
esterfication
(ii) Outline what is meant by the term sympathomimetic drug and state two examples
of short-term effects sympathomimetic drugs have on the human body. 3
sympathomimetic drugs mimic the effect of adrenaline;
Any two of the following:
stimulate the sympathetic nervous system; speed up the heart rate;
increase sweat production; increase rate of breathing; 3 max
What are the 5 main ways on administration of drugs?
Oral Rectal Pulmonary Topical Injections
How may tolerance develop? 2
May develop for two reasons: repeated use of the drug stimulates increased metabolism of the drug – the body is able to prepare the drug more quickly for excretion so that lower levels remain in the body to cause an effect. Or The body may adapt so that it offsets the effects of the drug – for example, by desensitising the target receptors with which the drug binds so that it is not able to produce its effect
Does aspirin have a good solubility?
no
The structures of morphine and diamorphine (heroin) are shown in Table 20 of the Data Booklet. State the name of a functional group present in diamorphine (heroin) but not in morphine.
ester;
Define Oral administration of drugs: 3 + (1.5 advantage and 2 disadvantage)
A substance or drug ingested by the mouth Majority of drugs are given by mouth in the form of tablets, capsules, syrups, and suspensions Passes into the stomach and intestines and then absorbed by the bloodstream to d=travel to the site of action An advantage of taking drugs orally is that it is convenient for patients and easy t self-administer. A disadvantage is that the onset of the drug is slow because it has to be first absorbed And some drugs are destroyed by enzymes in the gut