Chemistry & Biochemistry 2 Flashcards
What are the building blocks of proteins?
And how many does the body need to create the proteins needed to function?
Amino acids
The body needs 20
What 4 elements form proteins?
And which one distinguishes proteins (from fats and carbs)?
Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen
Nitrogen distinguishes proteins from fats and carbs.
Describe the structural groups found in amino acids
Along with a Carbon and a Hydrogen, every amino acid has a carboxyl group / acid (-COOH) and an amino group (-NH3)
Each individual amino acid has a side chain (labelled R) that determines it’s characteristic.
What are peptide bonds?
Amino acids join together using dehydration synthesis (removing water) to create peptide bonds.
Dipeptide = 2 amino acids joined with 1 bond.
Tripeptide = 3 joined together with 2 bonds
Name a tripeptide
Glutathione
A powerful antioxidant containing amino acids L-cysteine, L-glutamate, and glucine.
List 3 cysteine rich foods
Legumes
Sunflower seeds
Eggs
What is ceviche and its risks?
This is when lemon juice is put on raw fish - the protein structures change as it is denatured. It changes from soft/translucent to firm and more opaque.
This does not necessarily kill all potential harmful organisms and parasites though.
How much amino acids react to the pH of its surrounding fluid?
The pH of the fluid will affect the 3D structure and therefore it’s function.
Amino acids with acidic side chains can release hydrogens ions depending on the pH. And Amino acids with basic side chains can bind to hydrogen ions again depending on the pH.
Describe how non-polar and polar amino acids behave in water.
Give an example of each.
Non-polar are hydrophobic and so like to be on the inside of the protein.
E.g. tryptophan (used to produce serotonin)
Polar amino acids are hydrophilic and so like to be on the outside of the protein.
E.g. tyrosine (used to create adrenaline)
List 5 functions of protein
- Structure of body tissue
- Movement
- Carrier molecules
- Storage molecules
- Fluid balance
- Enzymes
- Hormones
- Immune function
- Clotting mechanism
- Alternative energy source
- Cell membrane proteins
Describe denaturation
The 3D structure of a protein is key to its function. Denaturation describes the change in a protein’s 3D structure which results in it no longer functioning correctly.
What can denature a protein?
- Heat
- pH change
- Heavy metals e.g. lead and mercury
How does the body digest proteins from consumption to the stomach?
Uses enzymes to help break the peptide bonds between amino acids.
Mechanically broken down in the mouth, increasing surface area.
Chemical digestion begins in the stomach, the enzyme pepsin breaks down long chains.
NB Pepsin is initially released as pepsinogen. The presence of HCI converts it to pepsin. Pepsin needs to be a pH2 to function correctly. So adequate stomach acid is critical for digestion
Describe how proteins are digested and absorbed after passing through the stomach.
Once in the small intestine, the hormone CCK is released , triggering release of pancreatic juices.
Pancreatic juices contain proteases called trypsin and chymotrypsin. These further break down the proteins before they can enter the blood.
What are Nucleic Acids?
The largest molecules in the body and used to store genetic information.
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
What are the building blocks of nucleic acids?
They’re called nucleotides. Consisting of a phosphate group, sugar, and a nitrogenous base.
List Describe the different roles of DNA & RNA
DNA stores all the genetic information - it acts as a template for protein synthesis.
RNA is used to copy specific sub-sections of DNA called ‘genes’ and translate them into proteins.
What are the ends of sections of DNA called?
Telomeres
What are the 4 nucleotide bases?
And what are they made from?
Adenine - purine
Thymine - pyrimidine
Guanine - purine
Cytosine - pyrimidine
These are all 5-carbon sugars called deoxyribose
Briefly describe the role of RNA
RNA is a single strand of nucleotides which contain the sugar ‘ribose’.
A molecule of mRNA copies the gene in DNA. This is known as transcription.
mRNA then travels to a ribosome where it is translated and the ribosome can produce the protein.
Describes the bonds that hold DNA together
DNA has 2 strands wound together.
The 2 strands are held together by hydrogen bonds in the middle.
The bonds along the sides are covalent bonds.
NB as hydrogen bonds are much weaker, this is how DNA is able to ‘unzip’ itself for protein synthesis.
What happens to DNS during aging?
And what can accelerate this process?
The length of the telomeres is shortened as cells and tissues age.
Accelerated by stress, poor nutrition, poor sleep, chemical agents, lack of exercise.
What herb can support healthy aging and how?
Gotu kola - by reducing telomere shortening
How might mutations in DNA affect proteins?
Changes in the DNA code will ultimately affect the synthasis of proteins. Mutations can change the sequence of amino acids in the protein, changing their shade and potentially making them faulty
Give 2 pathological example of a gene mutation and what proteins it affects
Sickle cell anaemia - affecting production of haemoglobin proteins.
Haemophilia - mutations affect production of clotting factor 8 or 9.
What is gene expression?
And give an example.
It is whether we copy a gene and make the protein or not.
E.g. the liver makes lots of different enzymes involved in breaking down toxins. The more exposure, the more enzymes will be produced.
List 3 nutrients and 3 environmental factors that can influence gene expression
Nutrients:
- Vitamin A
-Vitamin D
- Essential fatty acids
- Zinc
- Fibre
Environmental:
- Lack of oxygen
- Chronic stress
- Radiation
- Vaccines and drug toxins
- Junk food
Describe the gene mutation of folate.
MTHFR is an ezyme necessary for converting folate into a form used for methylation.
This active form of folate is involved in the metabolism of the amino acid homocysteine.
The mutation causes the enzyme to fold up into an abnormal shape.
People with MTHFR mutation may have higher homocysteine levels
What are enzymes?
Biological catalysts made from proteins. They speed up reactions but are not themselves changed by the process.
NB they generally end in the suffix -ase.
E.g. lipase, protease,
In an enzyme reaction, what are the molecules called at the beginning and end of the process?
Beginning = substrates
End product = products
How do enzyme reactions work?
Each enzyme has a specific region called an active site where substrates bind.
Enzymes stress the bond in the substrate which weakens it and allows the body to more easily break the bond.
Enzymes are essential to speed up reactions that could otherwise take a long time at body temp.
Give 2 examples of enzyme cofactors and what they’re needed for
Zinc - for alcohol dehydrogenase enzyme to break down alcohol.
Selenium - for antioxidant enzyme ‘glutathione peroxidase’
Are enzymes affected by fluid pH?
Yes - they’re proteins so will react in the same way of being denatured if conditions are too acidic or too alkaline.
Give 2 examples of enzyme pH requirements
Salivary amylase requires a neutral pH of 7. It is denatured when it enters the acidic stomach.
Pepsin requires a pH of 2 so needs good stomach acid to function correctly.
How are enzymes affected by temperature?
Human body enzymes require a temp of approx 37C to function optimally.
High temps cause atoms in the enzyme to vibrate too much and weaken bonds.
Name 1 enzyme each found in the mouth, stomach, pancreas, and brush border.
Mouth - salivary amylase
Stomach - Gastric lipase or pepsinogen/pepsin
Pancreas = pancreatic amylase/lipase/protease
Brush border = Sucrase, Maltase, Lactase
How do modern dietary habits impact digestive enzymes?
Constantly eating taxes enzyme production - impairing digestion and absorption of nutrients.
Drinking whilst eating dilutes digestive juices containing enzymes.
Aside from dietary habits, what else can impact enzyme output? (2)
Prolonged stress
Nutritional deficiencies
Name 3 herbal bitters that can be used to stimulate enzyme production.
Gentian
Barberry bark
Andrograph
Dandelion.
Name 3 plant enzymes and their source.
Bromelain in pineapple (protease)
Papain in papayas (protease)
Actinidin in Kiwi (protease)
Liapase in avocados
How robust are plant enzymes?
They can withstand greater variations in pH levels, but will still be denatured by heat (above 40C) and microwaving.
List 3 benefits to plant enzymes
- Support digestion
- Breakdown of macronutrients
- Reduce the digestive burden
Does most raw food contain more or less micronutrients than cooked food?
More
i.e. vitamins, minerals, probiotics, anti-oxidants, reduce free radicals and the need for digestive enzymes.
Give 2 examples of plant food components that become more available when heated
Lycopene
Beta-carotene
(both released from plant walls when heated)
What enzymes are involved in inflammatory mediators?
And name 2 foods that can help reduce these.
Cyclooxygenase-1 (COX)
Lipoxygenase-5 (LOX)
Boswellia, Ginger, Curcumin
Give 2 examples of enzyme inhibitors
Antibiotics - inactivates an enzyme necessary for the connections of amino acids in bacterial cell walls
Statins - inhibit HMG-CoA reductase - a liver enzyme used to make cholesterol and CoQ10.
What is enzyme therapy?
Systemic enzyme therapy involves taking a large dose of proteolytic enzymes on an empty stomach so that some of the enzymes are able to reach the bloodstream. The proteases are thought to reduce inflammatory processes and aid in the more efficient clearance of damaged tissues.
Name 2 enzymes commonly used in enzyme therapy
Bromelain (from pineapples)
Serrapeptase
Pancreatic enzymes
List 3 health benefits of bromelain
- Anti-inflammatory
- Anti-cancer properties
- Anti-clotting
(Found in pineapples)
List 3 health benefits of Serrapeptase
- Thinning the fluids formed from injury, facilitating drainage
- Inhibiting the release of pain-mediating chemicals
- Enhances cardiovascular health
- No adverse gastrointestinal effects like NSAIDS
(Originally from the silkworm)
In brief terms, what does the body need to create energy?
The body needs carbohydrates, fats or proteins, but it also need essential nutrients that support the key processes of energy production.
What is the energy currency of the body?
And how does it work?
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
It captures the energy released by reactions in the body such as burning glucose, that it can then be used in the body.
The energy is stored between phosphate group bonds in ATP’s necleotide structure.
What key nutrient is linked to ATP and how?
Magnesium binds to phosphate groups in ATP, holding the molecule in a curved shape that aids the loss of phosphate, facilitating energy release.
Without Magnesium, ATP isn’t biologically active.
List 4 sources of magnesium
- Green vegetables
- Avocados
- Nuts and seeds
- Legumes
- Whole grains
List 4 functions of ATP
- Capture the energy from oxidation reactions
- Drive body reactions (such as building proteins)
- Fuel movement
- Transport substances across membranes (active transport)
- Cell division
What are energy carriers? And what are they mostly derived from?
Energy carriers are used to temporarily capture and store energy released to be used later.
Derived from B Vitamins
What are the 2 energy carriers and their main vitamins?
NAD (turning into NADH when it has energy)
Vitamin B3, or from amino acids
Can store 3 ATP
FAD (turning into FADH2)
Vitamin B2
Can store 2 ATP
What are the 4 steps of cellular respiration with carbohydrates?
- Glycolysis
- Formation of acetyl CoA
- Krebs Cycle
- Electron transport chain
Briefly describe the process of glycolysis.
Include where it takes place in the cell and the nutrients needed.
Stage 1 of aerobic & anaerobic respiration.
Takes place in cytosol.
1x glucose (with 6 carbons) is transformed into 2x pyruvate (with 3 carbons each).
This splitting of glucose 2 ATP is used up, but it also releases 2 more ATP and 2 NADH.
Magnesium needed for ATP used
B3 is needed for NADH creation.
Describe the different processes of aerobic and anaerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration is needed to continue past glycolysis in cell respiration. Without oxygen, NADH cannot be recycled. The result is that it reacts with pyruvate, turning into lactic acid.
Anaerobic respiration should ideally only be used for short bursts of activity but many individuals are chronically hypoxic
What lifestyle/environmental factors make people prone to hypoxia?
Many individuals are chronically hypoxic from pollution, stress, lack of exercise, smoking, and obesity.
List 3 suggestions you can make to clients to improve their aerobic respiration capacity
- Exercise regularly (3-5x a week) Include outdoor activity.
- Diaphragmatic breathing exercises
- Get outside in nature
- Optimise dietary iron intake to support oxygen delivery to tissues. (Green smoothies)
- Improve desk posture and encourage movement.
Describe the second stage of cellular respiration.
Include where it takes place and the nutrients needed.
Step 2: Acetyl CoA formation
Oxygen must be present.
Takes place in mitochondria
2x Pyruvate (3 carbons each) are converted into 2x Acetyle CoA (2 carbons each)
2x NADH created.
(Net total now 2 ATP, 4 NADH)
B1, B5 & lipoic acid needed for conversion.
B3 needed for NADH production
Describe the third stage of cellular respiration.
Include where it takes place and the nutrients needed.
Step 3: Krebs Cycle
Occurs in mitochondria matrix
2x Acetyl Coa modified by enzymes
2x ATP (net total 4)
6x NADH (net total 10)
2x FADH2 (net total 2)
Need magnesium, manganese, iron, B1, B2, B3
What can block the enzymes in the Krebs Cycle?
Heavy metals such as aluminum and mercury.
Describe the fourth stage of cellular respiration.
Include where it takes place and the nutrients needed.
Step 4: The Electron Transport Chain
Within the mitochondria inner folds.
Oxygen is essential here.
Energy trapped in NADH & FADH2 are released turning into ATP.
Resulting in 38 ATP
Needs iron, sulphur, CoQ10, copper
List 4 sources of CoQ10
Meat (including Poultry and Fish)
Nuts
Sesame seeds
Broccoli
Cauliflower
Oranges
Strawberries
List 3 causes of mitochondrial damage
- Free radicals
- Medical drugs
- Alcohol
- Environmental toxins - pollution heavy metals, plastics
List 3 pathologies that poor mitochondrial function are linked to
- Fibromyalgia
- Type 2 diabetes
- Chronic fatigue syndrome
- The pathogenesis of cancer
List 3 ways we can support mitochondria
- Reduce toxic load
- Increase nutrient co-factors
- Increase production of glutathione and mitochondrial antioxidants
- Support detoxification (liver) and elimination
List 3 herbs that can support mitochondrial functions
- Ginseng
- Astragalus
- Ginko biloba
- Rosemary
- Curcumin
List 2 herbs that can help cleanse the blood
Burdock
Dandelion
How much ATP is created with anaerobic respiration?
2 ATP
What process occurs if using fats for energy production?
Lipases split triglycerides from adipose tissue into fatty acids and glycerol.
In the liver, fatty acids are processed (beta-oxidation) to convert them into acetyl CoA.
Acetyl CoA then enters the Kerbs Cycle and is processed as normal.
Are fats a more efficient energy than carbs?
No - fats yield a lot more energy but the process is less efficient. Burning carbs is easier.
Describe the process of getting fatty acids into the mitochondria
Fatty acids must first be combined with co-enzyme A (from vitamin B5)
This process requires ATP (and so magnesium)
A carnitine-dependent enzyme is then needed to ferry the fatty acid into the mitochondria
What nutrients are needed for beta-oxidation?
Vitamin B2
Vitamin B3
Sulphur
NB Beta oxidation is the process of fatty acids converting into acetyl CoA.
What part of the body can’t use fatty acids as energy? What must it do instead?
The brain gets its energy from ketone bodies when sufficient glucose isn’t available.
Mitochondria in the liver can convert Acetyl CoA into ketones bodies - acetone, acetoacetic acid and B-hydroxybutrate
What is ketoacidosis and when might is occur?
It is when the body creates excessively high quantities of ketone bodies as a result of ketosis.
Can occur in diabetes mellitus and alcoholism.
How might someone’s breath smell is they have ketoacidosis?
Smells like nail varnish
List 3 health benefits of ketosis
- Sometimes recommended to children with epilepsy as it increases GABA in the brain.
- Enhances mitochondrial function with benefits to neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s & Parkinson’s
- Starves cancer cells that can’t operate without glucose.
What are the potential benefits of fasting?
Prevents the body from expending excess amounts of energy on digesting foods so it can focus energy on other functions such as healing and regenerating.
Fasting also encourages the body to enter ketosis and fats yield more energy that carbs so can increase energy levels.
Briefly describe the process of using protein for energy production
The carbon parts of amino acids can be broken down to generate ATP or they can be used for gluconeogenesis.
Nitrogen has to be lost during this process. Vitamins B3 and B6 are important co-factors in this.
What is gluconeogensis?
Where does it take place?
What cofactor is needed?
Describes the formation of new glucose from other non-carbohydrate sources. Key examples include:
- Pyruvate
- Lactic acid
- Glycerol
- Some amino acids
It takes place in the liver.
Biotin is an important cofactor
What percentages of an adults energy are obtains from carbs, fat and protein.
47% carbohydrates
38% fat
15% protein
List the 4 major sources of energy for the body and where they come from
Glucose - from carbs
Fatty acids - from fat metabolism
Ketone bodies - from fat/amino acids
Amino acids - from protein
