Chemistry and biochemistry 2 Flashcards
What elements are proteins made from?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
What elements are carbs and fats made from?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen.
How many different amino acids does the body need to make all the proteins needed to function?
20
What is aspartame?
Harmful dipeptide that does not occur in nature and is a neurotoxin. It is manufactured to become an artificial sweetener.
What is the chemical structure of glutathione?
Glutathione is a powerful antioxidant which is a tripeptide, containing L-cysteine, L-glutamate and glycine.
What foods to eat to optimise glutathione production?
Cysteine - most commonly limits production. Ensure a good intake of cysteine from foods such as legumes, sunflower seeds and eggs.
Non-polar amino acids are hydrophobic. Give an example?
Tryptophan (used to produce serotonin) - in a watery environment they like to be on the inside of the protein structure, away from water.
Polar amino acids are hydrophilic. Give an example?
Tyrosine (used to create adrenaline and thyroxine) in a water environment like to be on the outside of the protein structure.
What are the functions of proteins?
STRESSMD
Signalling eg receptors in cell membranes (binding to molecules and initiating physiological responses)
Transport eg carrier molecules like haemoglobin
Regulation eg albumin regulating water balance
Enzymes
Structure eg collagen in body tissues
Storage eg ferritin
Movement eg energy source and actin/myosin fibres
Defence eg antibodies
What denatures proteins?
- Heat eg cooking. A problem when it happens to our biological proteins hence body maintaining homeostatic temp.
- Heavy metals eg lead and mercury can damage hormones, antibodies and enzymes.
Nucleotide base pairings. What pairs with Adenine?
Adenine is a purine that pairs with pyrimidine Thymine.
Nucleotide base pairings. What pairs with Guanine?
Guanine is a purine that pairs with pyrimidine Cytosine.
What are the four possible nucleotide bases?
Adenine, Thymine, Guanine and Cyosine.
What are chromosomes?
Condensed DNA
What are the end sections of DNA called?
Telomeres
What factors shorten telomeres?
Telomeres shorten as cells and tissues age. This can be accelerated by stress, poor nutrition, poor sleep, chemical agents and a lack of exercise.
What herb has been shown to reduce telomere shortening, and hence support healthy ageing?
Gotu Kolab
What is a gene mutation?
A change in the DNA sequence (amino acid sequence) which can cause the protein to be a slightly different shape which can alter its function. Eg. sickle-cell anaemia, coding for the production of haemoglobin. Abnormally shaped haemoglobin.
What might cause a mutation?
Genetics, poor diet, smoking, chronic inflammation, carcinogenic chemicals, radiation, vaccines, drugs etc.
What is MTHFR?
An enzyme necessary for converting folate (B9) into a form used for methylation.
What are some functions of methylation?
To make neurotransmitters.
To control gene expression.
To get rid of homocysteine and heavy metals.
What are the implications of a MTHFR mutation?
Methylation is about 50% efficient (under-methylating). There may be a build up of the amino acid homocysteine.
What pathologies are associated with high levels of homocysteine?
Heart disease and dementia.
Why should we avoid excessive intake of folic acid?
Excessive folic acid can interfere with the MTHFR pathway.
What nutrient is a co-factor for alcohol dehydrogenase?
Zinc
What nutrient is a co-factor for glutathione peroxidase?
Seleniumx
Omega-3 conversion
Alpha-linolenic Acid (ALA) converts some into Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). EPA is converted into Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA).
Omega-6 conversion
Linoleic Acid (LA) converts some into Gamma Linolenic Acid (GLA). GLA converted into Arachidonic Acid (AA).3
How can we support digestive enzymes?
By not over-eating - enzyme production cannot meet demand - reducing absorption of nutrients.
Avoid drinking whilst eating - diluting the digestive juices containing enzymes.
Reduce stress.
Good diet to ensure there are not nutritional deficiences.
How do bitters work?
Stimulate the vagus nerve and trigger the release of cholecystokinin (CCK).
Example of bitters and digestive enzymes that can be used?
Gentian (in Swedish bitters) barberry bark and dandelion. Bitter greens.
Bromelain in pineapples. Papain in papayas.
Foods the contain an abundance of enzymes?
SKA G
Sprouts (100 times more than fruit and veg)
Kiwi (contains proteolytic enzyme ‘actinidin’ - aids protein digestion).
Avocado (contains lipase)
Garlic - contains sulphur-rich phytonutrient ‘alliin’, enzyme which digests it - alliinase. On crushing/chopping, compounds are combined and enzyme activity converts alliin into allicin. Allicin is anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, anti-cancer properties.
Benefits of raw foods?
Contain higher levels of vitamins, minerals, probiotics, anti-oxidants. Reduce free radicals and need for digestive enzymes.
Which compounds in plant-based foods are more available when heated? and why?
Lycopene and beta-carotene, because this releases them from plant cell walls.
People with a certain common digestive condition would not be advised to eat raw foods, what is the conditon? why?
Small Intestinal Bacterial Overgrowth (SIBO). Can cause immediate bloating.
People with a certain endocrine condition would not be advised to eat brassicas, what is the condition? why?
Thyroid disorder, because brassicas are goitrogenic which means they can disrupt the uptake of iodine in the thyroid gland. Goitrogens are inactivated by cooking.
Excessive raw foods can lead to an imbalance energetically. Explain?
Too much yin. Yin conditions can cause lethargy, anaemia, a feeling of being cold.
What enzymes are involved in the creation of key inflammatory mediators such as prostaglandins and leukotrienes?
Cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX) and lipoxygenase-5 (LOX). Often the target of anti-inflammatory meds such as ibuprofen.tw
Why does black pepper (piperine) enhance absorption of the compound curcumin?
The piperine in black pepper stops enzymes in the intestine destroying the curcumin before it is properly absorbed.
Other than black pepper, what else should you combine curcumin with to help absorption?
Turmeric is fat-soluble so absorption is further supported by the presence of fats.
Give two examples of enzyme inhibitors that are used as drugs?
Antibiotics - (penicillin) inhibits enzymes used for the connections of amino acids in bacterial cell walls - important for their structure.
Statins - (Simvastatin) inhibits HMG-CoA Reductase which inhibits the enzyme in the liver which produces cholesterol and CoQ10. Why statins also deplete CoQ10.
Enzyme therapy, Serrapeptase. How does it reduce inflammation?
TIE
Thinning fluids from injury (better fluid drainage).
Inhibiting release of pain-mediating chemicals such as Bradykinin and histamine (but not prostaglandins).
Enhances cardiovascular health by breaking down fibrin, therefore helping to dissolve blood clots and atheroschlerotic plaques.
How does how body capture the energy released by reactions?
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) traps the energy.
It is a nucleotide with three phosphate groups. The bonds between the phosphate groups contain lots of energy. When water is added to ATP, one phosphate group is removed, releasing energy via a hydrolysis reaction.
Why is magnesium essential to ATP?
Binds to phosphate groups holding molecule in a curved shape that aids the loss of phosphate. If there is no magnesium, ATP will be the wrong shape and won’t be able to release ATP.
Low energy = sign of magnesium insufficiency.
Where is magnesium found?
Central component of chlorophyll, so increase intake of green vegetables.
Functions of ATP?
Body Energy in Cells Triggers Movement
Body - B for driving body reactions eg. building proteins
Energy in - E for energy capture
Cells - C for cell division
Triggers - T for Transport substances across cell membrane
Movement
What vitamins act as temporary ‘energy carriers’ to temporarily capture the energy released before it gets turned into ATP?
B vitamins
NAD made from vit B3 - niacin, or from tryptophan and aspartic acid. When it traps energy it is NADH.
FAD made from vit B2 - riboflavin. When it traps energy it is FADH2.
How to oxygenate our bodies?
PIPED oxygen
Plants - house plants, being in nature, plants produce O
Iron - oxygen delivery to tissues
Posture - open up thoracic cavity to breath effectively
Exercise
Diaphragmatic breathing
Can glycolysis (‘sugar splitting’) occur in an anaerobic environment?
Yes, but oxygen must be present for stages 2, 3 and 4 of energy production. NADH cannot be recycled. NADH reacts with pyruvate turning into lactic acid.
What symptoms can lactic acid cause?
Muscle pain and an acidic environment.
Lactic acid should only occur with short bursts of intensive exercise, but some individuals are chronically ‘hypoxic’.
What nutrients are required for stage 1: Glycolysis?
Magnesium (required for ATP)
B3 (to turn pyruvate into NADH)
What nutrients are required for stage 2: Acetyl CoA Formation?
Coenzyme A is made from B5
B1, B3
Lipoic acid
What nutrients are required for stage 3: The Krebs Cycle?
Magnesium
Manganese
Fe
B1, B2, B3
What nutrients are required for stage 4: The Electron Transport Chain
Complex I - sulphur and Fe
Complex II - CoQ10
Complex III - Fe
Complex IV - copper ions
Good supply of minerals and trace minerals.
What can block the Krebs cycle?
Heavy metals such as aluminium and mercury.
What is stage 1: Glycolysis?
Sugar splitting
What is happening in stage 2: Acetyl CoA formation?
Getting the molecules into the mitochondria
What is happening in stage 3: The Krebs Cycle?
A series of chemical reactions in which Acetyl CoA is completely oxidised generating NADH and FADH2.
What is happening in stage 4: The Electron Transport Chain?
The energy in NADH and FADH2 is being turned into ATP.
What is an adaptogen?
Helps the body adapt to stress.
What herbal medicine support mitochondrial function?
Adaptogenic herbs including ginseng and rhodiola.
As well as rosemary and curcumin.
‘Blood cleansing’: dandelion and burdock.
How many molecules of ATP are created during aerobic respiration?
One molecule of glucose creates 38 ATP.
How many molecules of ATP are created during anaerobic respiration?
2 ATP
Energy produced from fats (calories per gram)?
9
Energy produced from carbs (calories per gram)?
4
The process of beta-oxidation (breakdown of fats into acetyl coA in the mitochondria of the liver) requires what nutrients?
magnesium - ATP for the process
B5 for coenzyme A
B2, B3 and sulphur
L-Carnitine is required to transport fatty acids into the mitochondria.
Where are ketone bodies created?
In the mitochondria of liver cells.
What is ketogenesis?
The production of ketones.
What conditions benefit from being in a state of ketosis?
Refractory epilepsy (ie epilepsy that doesn’t respond well to medications). It increases the amount of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the brain.
Neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.
Cancer - cancerous cells rely solely on glucose for their metabolism.
Benefits of fasting
- not expending energy on digesting food, allows for healing and regeneration.
- ketosis - can increase energy levels.
What is gluconeogenesis?
Making glucose from sources that aren’t carbs eg pyruvate, lactic acid, glycerol and some amino acids.
When and where does gluconeogenesis take place?
In the liver and to a lesser extent in the kidneys. In times of fasting, starvation or intensive exercise.
What nutrient is an important co-factor for gluconeogenesis?
Biotin
