Chemisry 1 Flashcards
Example of homogenous mixture
Alloy, gaseous air
Examples of heterogenous mixture
Soil samples, muddy water, smoke
Iron(I) sulphide
Black solid
Soluble in carbon disulphide
What is a solution
Homogenous mixture of two substances
Solute + solvent = solution
Dissolved solute particles in a liquid solution are called
Crystalloids
So small cannot be seen with naked eye
Brine
Solute -common salt
Solvent - water
Air
Solute Oxygen
Solvebf Nitrogen
Brass
Solute Zinc
Solvent Copper
Bronze
Solute Tin
Solvent Copper
Steel
Solute Carbon
Solvent Iron
Saturate and unsaturated
When a small quantity of a solute, such as granulated sugar, is placed in a beaker containing a known volume of water and the mixture is stirred, the solute dissolves to give a colourless solution.
As more of the solute is added to the solution with stirring, it dissolves. However, a stage is reached in which the solute no longer dissolve in the solution.
A solution in which the solute can no longer dissolve in the presence of undissolved solute at a given temperature is saturated, while a solution, which is still capable of dissolving more solute at a given temperature is unsaturated.
Brine is a saturated solution of common salt in water.
Suspension
Particles of solute neither soluble or insoluble
Muddy water - clay particles in water
Sandstorm - dust and fine sand in air
Colour is not uniform
Particle sediment- settle with gravity -sedimentation
Colloidal dispersion
False solution
Natural blood, milk gum glue smoke
Colloids
Scatter light- tyndall effect
Cannot be seen with naked eye
Solute Is dispersed in solvent
Scattering of light by colloids in colloidal solution
Tyndall effect
Dispersion of solid in liquid
Sol.
E.g starch solution(starch powder dispersed in water)
Concentrated sol
Natural honey
Solute more dominant than solvent
Emulsion
Emulsion is the dispersion of a liquid in another liquid, e.g. Natural milk is a dispersion of butterfat in a dilute sugar solution; while paints are liquid solutions dispersed in water or alcohols.
Aerosol
Solid or liquid in gas
Insecticides
Lather foam
Fog
Cigarette smoke
Acid hydrolysis of nitriles
Acid hydrolysis of nitriles refers to the chemical reaction where a nitrile compound reacts with an acid and water to produce a carboxylic acid and ammonia or an amine. This reaction involves the breaking of the nitrile triple bond (C≡N) and the addition of water (H₂O) under acidic conditions, resulting in the formation of a carboxylic acid functional group (–COOH) and ammonia (NH₃) or an amine. The acid catalyst typically used in this reaction is concentrated sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) or hydrochloric acid (HCl).
Electronegativity
Electronegativity refers to the tendency of an atom to attract electrons towards itself in a chemical bond. It is a property of individual elements and increases across a period from left to right and decreases down a group in the periodic table.
Elements with high electronegativity values, such as fluorine (F), oxygen (O), and nitrogen (N), tend to attract electrons strongly, while elements with low electronegativity values, such as alkali metals like sodium (Na) and potassium (K), tend to lose electrons easily.
Electronegativity is an important factor in determining the type of chemical bond formed between atoms. For example, when atoms with significantly different electronegativities bond, such as a metal and a nonmetal, an ionic bond is formed, where electrons are transferred from one atom to another. In contrast, when atoms with similar electronegativities bond, such as two nonmetals, a covalent bond is formed, where electrons are shared between atoms.
Tertiary alcohol
To determine the number of isomers of C₄H₉OH that are tertiary alcohols, we first need to understand what constitutes a tertiary alcohol. A tertiary alcohol is one where the carbon atom bonded to the hydroxyl group (OH) is directly attached to three other carbon atoms.
In the case of C₄H₉OH, the molecular formula suggests that there are four carbon atoms in the chain, and one hydroxyl group. Let’s analyze the possible structures:
1. Butanol (1-Butanol): • CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-CH₂-OH 2. 2-Methylpropan-1-ol: • CH₃-CH(CH₃)-CH₂-OH 3. 2-Methylpropan-2-ol (tert-Butanol): • CH₃-C(CH₃)₃-OH
Among these structures, only 2-Methylpropan-2-ol (tert-Butanol) is a tertiary alcohol because the carbon atom bonded to the hydroxyl group is directly attached to three other carbon atoms.
So, out of the three isomers of C₄H₉OH, only one is a tertiary alcohol, which is 2-Methylpropan-2-ol (tert-Butanol).
Oils and fats
Oils and fats are both lipids, but they differ in their chemical composition and physical properties. Here are some of the key chemical differences between oils and fats:
1. Saturation: Oils are typically unsaturated fats, meaning they contain a higher proportion of double bonds between carbon atoms in their fatty acid chains. Fats, on the other hand, are often saturated fats, meaning their fatty acid chains have single bonds between carbon atoms and are saturated with hydrogen atoms. 2. State at Room Temperature: Oils are liquid at room temperature, while fats are solid or semi-solid. This difference is primarily due to the higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in oils, which do not pack together as tightly as the saturated fatty acids in fats. 3. Source: Oils are usually derived from plant sources, such as seeds, nuts, or fruits (e.g., olive oil, sunflower oil). Fats are commonly found in animal products, such as meat, dairy, and eggs, although they can also be present in some plant sources (e.g., coconut oil, palm oil). 4. Melting Point: Fats generally have higher melting points than oils due to the presence of saturated fatty acids, which form stronger intermolecular interactions. This property contributes to the solid or semi-solid state of fats at room temperature. 5. Health Implications: The higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids in oils compared to fats can result in different health effects. Unsaturated fats, especially monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats found in oils like olive oil and fish oil, are associated with lower risk of cardiovascular diseases compared to saturated fats found in animal fats.
Overall, oils and fats exhibit distinct chemical differences based on their fatty acid composition, state at room temperature, source, melting point, and health implications.
The crystalline shape of solid water
The crystalline shape of solid water, or ice, is primarily due to the arrangement of water molecules in a hexagonal lattice structure. Each water molecule consists of one oxygen atom covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms. In the solid state, these molecules form a three-dimensional network held together by hydrogen bonds.
Hydrogen bonds occur between the slightly positive hydrogen atom of one water molecule and the slightly negative oxygen atom of another water molecule. This bonding arrangement results in the formation of hexagonal rings, with each water molecule hydrogen-bonded to four neighboring water molecules. These hexagonal rings stack on top of each other, creating the crystalline structure of ice.
The hydrogen bonds between water molecules give ice its characteristic stability and rigidity, as well as its unique hexagonal shape. This arrangement also causes ice to expand and become less dense than liquid water, which is why ice floats on water.
The chemical formula of laughing gas is
The chemical formula of laughing gas is N2O
Chemical Properties: laughing gas
Chemical Properties:
1. Colorless Gas: Nitrous oxide is a colorless gas at room temperature and pressure. 2. Non-Flammable: It is non-flammable and does not support combustion. 3. Solubility: It is sparingly soluble in water. 4. Stability: Nitrous oxide is relatively stable under normal conditions but decomposes at high temperatures to form nitrogen and oxygen.
Functions and Uses: laughing gas
Functions and Uses:
1. Anesthetic: Nitrous oxide is commonly used as an anesthetic agent in dentistry and surgery. It is often combined with oxygen for inhalation anesthesia. 2. Analgesic: It has mild analgesic properties and is sometimes used to relieve pain, especially during certain medical procedures. 3. Recreational Use: Nitrous oxide is sometimes used recreationally as a euphoriant and is commonly known as “laughing gas.” However, recreational use can be dangerous and is associated with various health risks, including oxygen deprivation and neurological damage. 4. Food Industry: It is used as a propellant in whipped cream dispensers to create whipped cream.
Nitrous oxide
Nitrous oxide is a greenhouse gas and contributes to global warming. Its release into the atmosphere, particularly from agricultural and industrial sources, can contribute to climate change.
The sulfide used for coating fluorescent tubes is typically
The sulfide used for coating fluorescent tubes is typically zinc sulfide (ZnS)
Chemical Properties of Zinc Sulfide (ZnS):
Chemical Properties of Zinc Sulfide (ZnS):
1. White to Yellowish Color: Zinc sulfide is a white to yellowish solid at room temperature. 2. Insoluble in Water: It is insoluble in water but can dissolve in acids to form zinc salts and hydrogen sulfide gas. 3. Phosphorescent Properties: Zinc sulfide exhibits phosphorescence, meaning it emits light after being exposed to radiation such as ultraviolet (UV) light. 4. High Refractive Index: It has a relatively high refractive index, making it useful for optical applications. 5. Stable: Zinc sulfide is generally stable under normal conditions, although it can decompose at high temperatures.
Why Zinc Sulfide is Used for Coating Fluorescent Tubes:
Why Zinc Sulfide is Used for Coating Fluorescent Tubes:
1. Phosphorescence: Zinc sulfide’s phosphorescent properties make it ideal for coating fluorescent tubes. When the tube is excited by electricity, it emits ultraviolet (UV) radiation, which in turn excites the zinc sulfide coating, causing it to emit visible light. 2. Efficiency: The use of zinc sulfide as a phosphor in fluorescent tubes enhances the efficiency of light production. It converts the UV radiation emitted by the mercury vapor inside the tube into visible light, resulting in a bright and energy-efficient light source. 3. Color Rendering: Zinc sulfide can be doped with various materials to adjust its color and improve color rendering properties. This allows fluorescent tubes to produce a wide range of colors, making them suitable for various applications such as indoor lighting, signage, and displays.
Hcl
Hydrochloric Acid (HCl): Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid commonly used in various industrial and laboratory processes. It is used in the production of PVC (polyvinyl chloride), in the pickling of steel to remove rust and scale, and in the processing of leather and textiles.
Nitriles
Acetonitrile (CH3CN): Acetonitrile is a solvent commonly used in organic synthesis and chromatography. It is also used as a raw material in the production of pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals, and specialty chemicals.
2. Benzonitrile (C6H5CN): Benzonitrile is used as a solvent and intermediate in the production of pharmaceuticals, dyes, and pesticides. It is also used in the synthesis of aromatic compounds and as a precursor to various organic compounds.
3. Propionitrile (CH3CH2CN): Propionitrile is used as a solvent and intermediate in organic synthesis. It is also used in the production of herbicides, insecticides, and pharmaceuticals.
Function of acids
Acids: Acids are substances that can donate protons (H+ ions) in chemical reactions. They are used in various industrial processes, including chemical manufacturing, metal processing, and food production. Acids also play important roles in biological systems, such as in digestion and metabolism.
Nitriles functions
: Nitriles are organic compounds containing the functional group -CN (cyano group). They are used as solvents, intermediates, and raw materials in organic synthesis. Nitriles can undergo hydrolysis to form carboxylic acids or be reduced to primary amines, making them versatile building blocks in organic chemistry.
Aromatization
: Converting aliphatic compounds into aromatic compounds, such as converting cyclohexane into benzene or other aromatic hydrocarbons.
Sodium hydroxide pellets
Sodium hydroxide pellets change to a liquid state when they are dissolved in water. This process is known as dissolution or hydration, where the pellets dissociate into sodium ions (Na⁺) and hydroxide ions (OH⁻) in the water, forming a solution of sodium hydroxide.
Antifreeze
Antifreeze typically consists of one or more compounds, the most common of which is ethylene glycol. Ethylene glycol is the primary ingredient in many automotive antifreeze formulations. It lowers the freezing point of water when mixed with it, preventing the coolant in a vehicle’s engine from freezing in cold temperatures. Sometimes, propylene glycol is also used as an alternative to ethylene glycol, especially in environmentally friendly or non-toxic antifreeze formulations. Additionally, antifreeze may contain corrosion inhibitors and other additives to protect the cooling system of the vehicle.
Ethanol
:
1. Chemical Formula: C2H5OH 2. Type: It is a type of alcohol, also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol. 3. Production: It can be produced through fermentation of sugars by yeast or through chemical synthesis. 4. Uses: Commonly used as a solvent, fuel additive, disinfectant, and in alcoholic beverages.
Ethylene Glycol:
- Chemical Formula: C2H6O2
- Type: It is a type of diol, also known as ethane-1,2-diol.
- Production: Typically produced from ethylene through a catalytic hydration process.
- Uses: Mainly used as antifreeze in automotive cooling systems, as a precursor in the production of polyester fibers and resins, and as a solvent in various industries.
Propylene Glycol
Propylene Glycol:
1. Chemical Formula: C3H8O2 2. Type: It is a type of diol, also known as propane-1,2-diol. 3. Production: Often produced from propylene oxide through a hydration process. 4. Uses: Commonly used as a solvent, humectant, and in various applications including food and pharmaceuticals, as well as in antifreeze formulations as a less toxic alternative to ethylene glycol.