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Kjemi 1 > Chem.1 Final - basic chemistry > Flashcards

Chem.1 Final - basic chemistry Flashcards

1
Q

Quantum numbers

A
  1. Principal: id. the shell (distance from the nucleus-K,L,M,N,O…)
  2. Angular (orbital): id. the subshell (shape of the orbitals belonging to the subshell-s,p,d,f,g…)
  3. Magnetic: id. the orbital (orientation of the orbitals in magnetic field)
  4. Spin (projection): the two possible spin of an e-
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2
Q

de Broglie hypothesis

A

Every object in motion with momentum, p has a wave character. de Broglie wavelength: λ = h/p (h: planck consonant)

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3
Q

Uncertainty principle - W.Heisenberg

A

The position and momentum of a particle cannot be simultaneously measured with high precision. There is a minimum for the product of the uncertainties of these two measurements.
For the motion and place: ΔpΔr = ħ/2
For the energy and time: ΔEΔt = ħ/2
ħ = h/2(pi) (=1.055 * 10^-34 J*s)

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4
Q

Quantitative aspects of Daltons theory

A
  1. Law of conservation of mass: no change in mass in chem.R
  2. Law of definite proportions: a pure comp. cont. the same elements combined in the same proportions by mass.
  3. Law of multiple proportions: If A and B form more than one comp., the masses of A, comb. with B, are in a ratio.
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5
Q

Isotopes

A

Atoms whose nuclei have the same atomic nr, but diff. mass nr –> Diff. neutron nr.

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6
Q

Wave nature of light

A

A cont. repeating change of oscillation of matter or a physical field in which the oscillation travels.

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7
Q

Mole number

A

n = N/NA

NA: Avogadro´s nr.-6.022*10^23 mol^-1

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8
Q

Electronegativity

A

How much E an element has to use to attract e-.

Eg. F=high EN. Na=low EN.

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9
Q

Alfa-particle

A

Nucleus of helium-4 isotope; ^4He^2+

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10
Q

Postulates of the Rutherford model

A
  1. Most of the mass of an atom is conc. in its nucleus.
  2. Nucleus is pos. charged, of p+ and n.
  3. Around nucleus move the e-.
  4. Atomic diameters ca. 105 times larger than of the nuclei.
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11
Q

EM radiation: def. on:
-wavelength
-frequency
Formula of speed of light

A

Wavelength (λ): dist. betw. two identical points of wave (m)
Frequency (ν): nr. of wavelength that pass a fixed point in one unit of time (1/s = Hz)
Speed of light: c = λ⋅ν (m/s)

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12
Q

Energy of a quantum (photon)

A

(Planck-equation): E=h⋅ν
h: Planck’s constant (J⋅s)
ν: frequency of radiation (Hz)

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13
Q

Energy of a shell/level

A

En = − const./n2

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14
Q

Bohr theory

A
  1. e- only travel in special orbits: at certain distances from the nucleus with specific E.
  2. e- of an atom revolve around the nucleus in orbits. These have definite E –> E shells/levels.
  3. Lowest possible E level=ground state. e- absorbs E and „jumps” to a higher E level –> atom in excited state.
  4. When e- falls back to a lower level, E will be emitted in form of a quantum of „light” (a photon).
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15
Q

Pauli’s exclusion principle

A

No two electrons can have the same four quantum numbers in an atom.

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16
Q

Building-up (Aufbau) principle

A

The subshells are built up in an order as the energy of the subshells increases.

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17
Q

Hund’s rule

A

The rule of maximum multiplicity, 2S+1. The e- are distributed among the orbitals of a subshell in a way that gives the maximum number of unpaired e- with parallel spins.

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18
Q

Atomic size

A

The effective size of a single atom cannot be defined. Atomic radius=bond distance/2

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19
Q

Ionizing E

A

The E required to remove the most loosely held e- from an isolated atom in its ground state=first ionization energy.
A(g) → A+(g) + e−

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20
Q

Electron affinity

A

The E change (∆E) associated with the process in which an e- is added to a gaseous atom in its ground state.
A(g) + e− → A−(g)

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21
Q

Polar covalent bond/Nonpolar covalent bonds/Ionic bonds

A
  • Polar: has greater e- density around one of the atoms. Bonding e- shared unequally. Partial charges. E.g.H2O
  • Nonpolar: Bonding e- shared equally. No charges. E.g.CH4 and H2.
  • Ionic: Complete transfer of one or more valence e-. Full charges on resulting ions. E.g.NaCl.
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22
Q

Coulombs law

A 
Gives the electric force between the two point charges. 
F=k(q1q2)/r^2 
k: Coulombs constant
q1 and q2: point charges
r: dist. betw. the two point charges
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23
Q

Electric dipole moment

A

A vector quantity (measure of net molecular polarity). Hence it can be broken down into a vertical and horizontal comp.

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24
Q

Intermolecular Interactions

A

1) Dipole-dipole (Methanol+chloroform)
2) Dipole-induced dipole (Cl-+hexane)
3) Dispersion-Van der Waals (octane and hexane)
4) H-bond (Methanol and H2O)
5) Ion-dipole (Na and H2O)
6) Ion-induced dipole (Acetone and hexane)

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25
Q

Ionic bonding

A

Involves the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions.

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26
Q

Lattice energy

A

The E required to convert the crystal into infinitely sep. gaseous ions, in vacuum (endothermic proc.). Unit: kJ/mol.

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27
Q

Molecular orbit theory (interference, additive/substractive comb. and bonding/antibonding orbitals)

A

(Gives the probability of finding an e- in certain regions of a mol.)

  • Interference: comb. of two (or more) waves
  • Additive comb.: same wavelength and same phase; reinforcement of in-phase waves
  • Subtractive combination: same wavelength and opposite phase; cancellation of out-of-phase waves
  • Bonding orbitals: Addition of atomic orbitals. Mol. orbitals that are conc. in regions betw. nuclei (i.e. prob. density of e- is not zero between the nuclei).
  • Antibonding orbitals: Subtraction of atomic orbitals. Mol. orbitals having nodal plane betw. nuclei (i.e. prob. density of e- is zero between the nuclei).
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28
Q

Multicenter (Delocalized) Bonding

A

Several Lewis structures are used together, because none of them exactly represents the actual structure. To represent the intermediate, a resonance hybrid is used instead.

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29
Q

Hybridization Theory

A
  1. To explain the bonding scheme in a molecule.
  2. The mixing of at least two non-equivalent atomic orbitals.
  3. Requires an input of E. The system recovers this E during bond formation.
  4. Covalent bonds are formed by the overlap of hybrid orbitals or of hybrid orbitals with unhybridized ones.
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30
Q

Electron-pair repulsions and molecular geometry

A

The valence e- pairs surrounding an atom mutually repel each other, and will therefore adopt an arrangement that minimizes this repulsion, thus determining the molecular geometry –> as far apart as possible.

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31
Q

Primary bond types

A
  1. Covalent bond:
    - Covalent molecular (e.g.H2O, NH3)
    - Covalent network (e.g. diamond SiO2)
  2. Ionic bond (e.g. NaCl)
  3. Metallic bond (e.g. Cu)
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32
Q

Kinetics

A

The area of physical chemistry concerned with

  • the velocity (or rate) at which a chem. R occurs
  • the investigation of the reaction mechanisms
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33
Q

Reaction rate

A

Change in amount/conc. (at const. V) of a reactant or prod. in a given unit of time

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34
Q

Temp. dependence of R rates-Collision theory

A

Collisions betw. the reactant mol. are required.

  • Effective collision: prod. chem. new substance(s)
  • Ineffective collision: the mol. rebound unchanged (elastic collision)
35
Q

Activated complex

A

A collection of intermediate structures in a chem. R that persist while bonds are breaking and new bonds are forming. Not a defined state.

36
Q

Classification of R according to their mechanisms

A

Multistep:

  • Singlestep:
  • -Unimolecular (CH3NC –> CH3CN)
  • -Bimolecular (CH3Br + OH- –> CH3OH + Br+)
  • -Termolecular (very rare, A + B + C –> prod.)
37
Q

Catalyst

A

A substance that increases the rate of a chem. R without being used up in the R.
-lowers the Ea
-opens a new path where the R can take place
Homogeneous and heterogeneous catalysis.

38
Q

Autocatalyst

A

The R. is accelerated by one of the R. prod. The catalyst forms in the course of the R.

39
Q

Inhibitors and catalytic poison

A

Inhibitor: „Neg. catalysts”; increases the Ea. (E.g. antioxidants retard the decomp. of foods by oxidants).
Catalytic poison: Substance that inhibits the activity of a catalyst by blocking its „active site”

40
Q

Chemical Equilibrium

A

Reversible R that can proceed in both directions.

Homogenous and heterogenous (same/diff phase)

41
Q

Equilibrium constant and temp.

A

If the temp. is raised of a:

  1. Exothermic R: shifts to the left
  2. Endothermic R: shifts to the right
42
Q

The Arrhenius Concept

A

Acid: a comp. that prod. H+ ions in water
Base: a comp. that prod. OH- ions in water

43
Q

The Brønsted-Lowry Concept

A

Acid, BH: a comp. that can donate a proton (proton donor)

Base, B: a comp. that can accept a proton (proton acceptor)

44
Q
  1. Amphiprotic

2. Ampholytic

A
  1. Substances that can function as acids or bases. E.g.H2O

2. Both H-atom and neg. charge. Acts as both acid and base. E.g. HCO3-.

45
Q

Electrolytes in aqueous solution

A
  • Strong electrolytes: complete ionization-complete dissociation (e.g. KCl, HBr, NaOH)
  • Weak electrolytes: incomplete ionization-incomplete dissociation (e.g. HgCl2, CH3COOH, NH3)
46
Q

Buffer solution

A

Is capable of maintaining its pH at nearly constant value even when small amounts of strong acid/base are added.

47
Q

Composition of buffers

A

1.Weak acid+its salt (with a strong base) (e.g.CH3COOH+CH3COONa)
2.Weak base+its salt (with a strong acid) (e.g.NH3+NH4Cl)
Generally: a weak acid and its conjugated base are both present in the buffer solution.

48
Q

Polyprotic acids

A

Contain more than one acid hydrogen per molecule. E.g. H2SO4, H3PO4 and oxalic acid.

49
Q

Acid-base indicators

A

Organic comp. of complex structures that change colour in sol. when pH changes.

50
Q

Titration

A

One of the methods of quantitative chem. analysis, where a standard sol. is R with a sol. of unknown conc. in order to determine it´s conc.

51
Q

Structure of peptides and proteins

A
  1. Primary: sequence
  2. Secondary: regularities in the conformation of the polypeptide chains determined by the H-bonds betw. the >C=O and H-N
  3. Tertiary: stabilized by the H-/dispersion-/disulfide bonds betw. R-groups. The 3-D shape of the whole mol.
  4. Quaternary: how several protein molecules come together to yield large aggregate structures.
52
Q

Classification of proteins

A
  • Building proteins:
    1. Simple proteins: comp. of chains of amino acids
    2. Conjugated proteins: chains of amino acids+non-protein part
  • Shape of the amino acid: Fibrous or globular proteins
53
Q

Detection of proteins

A
  • Irreversible coagulation(denaturation): conc.acids(e.g.HCl)
  • Reversible coagulation: conc. sol. of alkali and ammonium salts (e.g.[NaCl, (NH4)2SO4])
  • Xanthoproteic-test: cc.HNO3, yellow colour
  • Millon-test: HNO2, Hg(NO3)2, Hg2(NO3)2, red ppt.
  • Biuret-test: CuSO4/NaOH, Cu(II)-protein(amide) complex
  • Pauly-test: diazotized sulphanilic acid, orange colour
  • Sakaguchi-test: naphthol, brown colour
  • Ninhydrin-test: deep blue/purple
54
Q

Carbohydrates classification

A

1.Monosaccharides: (simple carbohydrates, simple sugars). E.g. ribose, glucose, fructose
2.Oligosaccharides: 2–6 simple carbohydrate units. E.g. cane sugar, milk sugar
3.Polysaccharides: macromolecular natural products.
E.g. starch, glycogen, cellulose

55
Q

Monosaccharides

  • Consists of?
  • Pos/neg Fehling?
  • Examples
A
  • Some OH-groups (polyalcohols) and one aldehyd/keton group
  • Pos. Fehling
  • E.g. glucose, fructose, ribose, vitamin C
56
Q

Classification of monosaccharides

A
  • Aldoses/Ketoses
  • Nr. of C-atoms (C3: trio-, tetro-, pento-, hexo-)
  • D/L (last hydroxyl group on the right/left)
  • Alfa/Beta (OH down/up)
57
Q

Furanoses and pyranoses

A

Cyclic structures containg 5 and 6 C-atoms.

58
Q

Mutarotation

A

Cont. change of optical rotation until it finally settles down to a constant value.

59
Q

Anomers

A

Isomeric α and ß forms which have id. configurations except for their diff. at the chiral center on C-1 atom

60
Q

Constitutional isomers

A

Mol. having same mol. formula, but diff. order of atomic connections.

61
Q

Compounds that do not follow octett rule

A

NO, BH3, BF3

62
Q

Deoxy sugars, amino sugars

A
  • Deoxy sugar: An OH group is replaced by a H atom

- Amino sugar: - - - by an NH2 group

63
Q

Detection of monosaccharides

A
  • Tollens(silver mirror test): Detects aldehyde/ketone with [Ag(NH3)2]. Ag ppt.
  • Fehling: Detects aldehyde/ketone with Cu2+. Red ppt. (CuSO4, K, Na-tartrate, NaOH Cu2O).
  • Nylander: Detects reducing sugars. Sol. of a bismuth-salt Bi. Black ppt.
64
Q

Disaccharides

  • Consists of?
  • Pos/neg Fehling? -examples?
A
  • Two monosaccharides joined together by O-glycosidic link
  • Pos. Fehling: Reducing disaccharides (free glycosidic OH-group (acetal) and mutarotation). E.g. lactose, maltose and cellobiose
  • Non-reducing: Sucrose
65
Q

Polysaccharides

  • Consists of?
  • Examples?
A
  • Large number (100-1000) of monosaccharides joined together by acetal-like bonds (glycosidic coupling).
  • E.g. starch
66
Q

Types of H.C

A
  • Saturated (open chain/cyclic)
  • Unsaturated (open chain/cyclic)
  • Aromatic
67
Q

Cyclodextrins

A

Comp. of five or more alfa-D-glucopyranoside units linked alfa(1,4) as in amylose. Interior part forms a host-guest
complex with hydrophobic mol.

68
Q

Derivatives of cellulose

A
  • Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC): -CH2OCH2COONa groups

- Cellulose nitrate

69
Q

Markovnikov´s rule

A

When an unsymmetrical substituted alkene reacts with a H halide, the H adds to the C that has greater nr. of H-substituents.

70
Q

Aromatic H.C.

A

Derivates of benzene, with particular el. structure-flavour properties (=Arenes). Parent compound: benzene, C6H6

71
Q

Conformation

A

Specific arrangment of atoms within a mol., emerging from the free rotation around the C-single bonds.
Isomers differ only in rotation around a single bond.
Can not be isolated.

72
Q

Electron-configuration

A
  • Shells: K, L, M, N
  • Subshells: S, P, D, F
  • 4S is before 3D
  • S: 1 orbital, P:3, D:5, F:7
  • The last e- in the last subshell, belongs to this block in the periodic table.
73
Q

Lewis acid/base, with examples

A

Acid: Mol./cons. that form a covalent bond by accepting e- pair. Central cation, oxidant, cathode, e- withdrawing/-poor, electrophilic. E.g. trifluoride, H+, Al3+, CO2, Cu2+
Base: Mol./cons. that have unshared e-pair(s). Ligand, e-donor, reductant, anode, electron donating/-rich, nucleophilic. E.g. NH4+, H2O, OH-

74
Q

Le Chatelier´s principal

A

A system in equilibrium reacts to a change (stress) in conditions in a way that counteracts the applied change and establishes a new equilibrium state.

  1. Conc.: incr.->opposite/decr.->same
  2. Pressure: incr.->least mol./decr.->most mol.
  3. Temp.: incr.->endotherm.R/decr.->exotherm.R
75
Q

Lipids

A

Naturally occurring organic substances isolated from cells and tissues by extraction with nonpolar organic solvents.

76
Q

Cracking

A

Transformation of high boiling hydrocarbons into simpler hydrocarbons of shorter carbon chain

77
Q

Stereoisomeri

A

Isomers that differ in 3D-arrangement of their atoms

78
Q

Chrical/achiral molecule

A

Chiral: A mol. that is not superimposable on its mirror image.
Achiral: A mol. that is superimposable on its mirror image.

79
Q

Enantiomers

A

They are stereoisomers differing only in the 3D-arrangement of substituents. Are mirror images that are not superimposable.

80
Q

Optical activity

A

The abiliity of a substance to rotate of the plane of polarized light

81
Q

Diastereomers

A

Stereoisomers, that are not mirror image isomers. Generally:

  • at least one chiral center should have the same configuration
  • at least one chiral center should have the opposite configuration
82
Q

Bond order

A

nb: nr of the bonding e-
nab: nr. of the antibonding e-
(nb + nab = nr. of e- in the mol.)

83
Q

Derivatives of carboxylic acids

A

Derived by transformations in the -COOH group.

Acyl halides, esters, amides and anhydrides.

Kjemi 1 (5 decks)

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