Chapters 6-8 Flashcards
Automatic Processing
Behaviour is well learned
Not in awareness
Controlled Processing
Behaviour poorly learned
Aware
How to avoid jet leg
Drink water Avoid alcohol Eat small meals Get up and stretch Expose to sunlight on arrival
Consciousness
Awareness of the relationship between self and the external world
How often do we daydream and why?
90minutes
Alters mood in positive direction, low risk way to deal with problems and increases arousal
As you get older you sleep more/less
More - amount increases back to infant amount
Signs of sleep
Lowered HR, respiration, muscle activity, temperature
How does the EEG change from awake to eyes closed
eyes open: beta pattern - 40cps
eyes closed: alpha pattern - 10 cps
As brain waves slow down they get…
larger
AKA inverse relationship
Stage 1 Sleep
Theta waves
6 cps
May experience sudden body jerks
Stage 2 Sleep
1) Sleep spindles - fast @ 12-16 cps
2) K complex - 1-2 cps; very slow with high amplitude
Where else is a K complex seen?
Epilepsy
Restless leg syndrome
Stage 3 Sleep
Intro to delta waves (1cps)
Stage 4 Sleep
All delta waves (1cps)
Deepest stage - very hard to wake up
What happens after stage 4 sleep?
Cycle all the way back up to stage 1 but this time stage 1 is very different (REM) - looks very similar to an awake person
REM
Rapid eye movement Beta and theta waves Dreams occur here Muscles immobilized AKA paradoxical - seem awake
How much time do you spend in REM sleep compared to stage 4?
As the night goes on:
Less time in stage 4
More time in REM
Reasons for sleep
Restorative (attention, irritation) - AKA restoration model Evolutionary - AKA evolutionary/circadian sleep model REM helps with memory Better mood (depressed individuals cycle into REM quickly - maybe because their body wants to feel better)
Insomnia
Sleep disorder
Difficulty getting to sleep (young adults) or staying asleep (older adults)
Situational (stressor) vs. chronic (circadian rhythm) vs thermoregulation problems
Sleep Apnea
Sleep disorder
Interruption in breathing during sleep
Normal but people do not start breathing again until they wake up
Caused by air passage obstruction (snores) or abnormal brain function
Narcolepsy
2-8% 1min to 1 hour Suddenly fall asleep at random times Begins with REM Caused by abnormal timing cycle for REM, depleted supply or insensitivity to hypocretins or triggered by strong emotions
Parasomnia
Includes: sleepwalking, sleep talking, bed wetting, night terrors
Sleepwalking
15% of children but rare in adults
Occurs in stage 4
Hard to wake up
Runs in families
Sleep talking
Occurs in stage 1 or 2
Sensitive to external world
Night Terrors
Suddenly sit up and scream Dilated pupils HR and breathing high Not associated with dreams - occurs in stage 3 or 4 Difficult to wake Disappears with age
Dreams
2 or more per REM (3-4REMS per night) Duration: 1-5 min Content: familiar places, real people, strong emotions, sexual (rare), monsters (rare) Mostly visual in color Duration directly related to REM Quickly forgotten
Which dreams do we remember?
The ones in the last REM period
Lucid Dreams
Aware you are dreaming and can control what you do
Nightmares
High cortical activity
Stress increases frequency
In adults it is correlated with psychopathology (anxiety)
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Dreaming
Main purpose: wish fulfillment - gratification of unconscious
Latent: unconscious wishes
Manifest: censored by the ego is what you actually dream
Activation-Synthesis Theory of Dreaming
You have a dream state generator controlled by brain stem
Dreams mean nothing
Pons doing random things the brain is trying to make sense of
Ways to measure states of consciousness
Self report: people describe inner experiences
Physiological measures: establish relationship between body stages and mental process
Behaviour measures: performance of special tasks
Freud’s Three Level Model of Consciousness
1) Conscious mind - contains thoughts, perceptions and other mental events we are currently aware of
2) Preconscious - mental events that are outside current awareness but can be easily recalled
3) Unconscious - events cannot be brought into awareness under normal circumstances
Do cognitive psychologists agree with the unconscious?
No they believe that it works to support the conscious
Divided Attention
Facilitated by automatic processing
Performing more than one activity at a time
May have negative consequences: texting and driving
Emotional Unconscious
The unconscious can effect our emotions
AKA not knowing why you are in a bad mood but you are
Visual Agnosia
Inability to visually recognize objects
Recognize peoples faces and object by touch
Are still able to see
Blindsight
Report they cannot see
But will respond to visual stimuli during tests
Modular Model of Mind
No single place in the brain that gives rise to consciousness
In our brain there are separate information processing modules that perform tasks simultaneously and then they talk and we experience a unitary conscious
Free Running Circadian Rhythm
If you never saw daytime, you naturally have a 25 hours cycle
Morning vs night person
Morning people go to bed early and risk early - they are morning people because their body temp, BP and alertness peak earlier
Varies with age and culture
SAD
Seasonal affective disorder
Cyclic tendency to become psychologically depressed during certain months of the year
Usually fall/winter - less daylight
How can fatal accidents caused by night shift work be fixed?
Rotating shiftwork: schedule that makes a persons waking day longer rather than compressing it
Circadian rhythms regulated sleep directly/indirectly?
Indirectly by controlling alertness
Slow Wave sleep
Stages 3 and 4
What area of the brain initiates REM sleep?
Reticular formation at the pons
List 3 important changes with sleep that occur as we age?
1) Sleep less
2) REM decreases during childhood but remains stable thereafter
3) Time spent in stages 3 and 4 declines
What are the effects of sleep deprivation?
Worse mood, irritable, confused, anxious, angry
Physical cost: insulin resistance, high BP, headache, stomach ache, allergic reactions
REM rebound effect
A tendency to increase the amount of REM sleep after being deprived of it
REM Sleep Behaviour Disorder
Normal REM sleep paralysis is absent
Kick violently, punch, get out of bed
Injure sleep partners or themselves
Hypnagogic State
The transitional state from wakefulness through early stage 2 sleep
Problem Solving Dream Models
Dreams can help us find creative solutions to our problems because they are not constrained to reality
Cognitive Process Dream Theory
Focus on how we dream
Is there an agreed upon model of dreaming?
No
Integrating stuff from several
Opiates and amphetamines are examples of?
Agonist drugs
Antipsychotics is an example of?
Antagonist drug
Tolerance
When a drug is used repeatedly, the intensity of the effects produced by the same dosage level may decrease over time
The body is trying to maintain optimal balance and will produce compensatory mechanisms to serve the opposite function of the drug
Withdrawal
Occurrence of compensatory responses after discontinued use
Overdose
Usually occurs at the same usual dose but in an unfamiliar environment because the body doesn’t produce the compensatory mechanisms it learned (classical conditioning) to do in the usual environment
Drug Addiction
A maladaptive pattern of substance use that causes a person significant distress
Along with physiological dependence (not a diagnostic term) - just a strong craving
True or false: drug tolerance always leads to significant withdrawal
False
True or false: Physiological dependence is the major cause of drug addiction
False
Depressants
Reduce NS activity - reduce tension/anxiety
Alcohol
Withdrawal can lead to death
Increases activity of GABA (main inhibitory NT) and decreases activity of glutamate
Initial up then down
Barbiturates and Tranquilizers
Sleeping pills and anti-anxiety drugs
At high doses barbs cause initial excitation then slurred speech, loss of coordination, etc.
Overdoses with alcohol can cause coma and death
Stimulants
Increase neural firing and arouse NS
Increase BP, respiration, HR and alertness
Amphetamines
Reduce fatigue and appetite Increase dopamine and NE activity Can cause heart failure and cerebral hemorrhage Hallucinations Types: crystal meth, MDMA (ecstasy)
Cocaine
Derived from cocoa plant
Excitation through NE and dopamine
Once used as a local anaesthetic
Opiates
Product of opium poppy
Drugs: morphine, codeine, heroin
Pain relief and mood changes
Fentanyl and oxycodone - result in death
Hallucinogens
Powerful mind altering drugs
Cultures consider it sacred
Greatest danger is unpredictability
Marijuana
Hemp plant
THC is the active ingredient
Increases GABA - slow neural activity
List 3 myths about marijuana
1) chronic users because apathetic - unmotivational syndrome
2) causes people to start using more dangerous drugs
3) no significant dangers
Hypnosis
Technique where clinicians make suggestions to individuals who have undergone a procedure designed to relax them and focus their minds
Does not consist of: involuntary behaviour or more accurate memory
Does consist of: pain relief
Dissociation Theories
Hypnosis is an altered state involving a division of consciousness
One stream responds to hypnotist and other is in consciousness (hidden observer)
Social Cognitive Theories of Hypnotism
Hypnotic experiences result from expectations of people who take on role of being hypnotized
Behaviourism
Focuses on stimulus and response
Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning
Association of neutral stimulus with one that consistently elicits a response
Model of Classical Conditioning
1) UCS –> UCR
2) CS + UCS
3) CS –> CR
3 important notes about classical conditioning
1) Have to be paying attention for stimulus to work
2) Model is NOT contingent on a response - AKA we don’t care what response the animal gives - as long as the association of UCS with the CS is there
3) CR not equal to UCR - they often look the same but the UCR might be under control of the PNS whereas the CR is under control of the CNS
Reinforcement-Affect Model
Love is a classically conditioned response to an individual being able to be around - Don Byrne
Acquisition Curves
Measure response strength
Two types:
1) Latency (CS-CR): how long to produce CR when presented with the CS
- curve is negatively accelerated (steep at beginning)
2) Output measure: eg) dogs saliva - over time the amount increases as association becomes stronger
Temporal Contiguity
Relationship between the CS and the UCS
How is temporal contiguity measured?
1) Forward pairing: the CS is presented just before the UCS
2) Simultaneous: CS and UCS at same time
3) Backward pairing: UCS before the CS
Which type of temporal contiguity works best?
Forward pairing with an interval of 0.5 seconds
Higher Order Conditioning (with classical vs instrumental conditioning)
Classical:Pair primary CS with another neutral stimulus
Not effective. CR extinguishes.
Instrumental: works much better
Primary SR bond is still reinforced + secondary reinforcement
Extinction
Decrease in response strength because the CS no longer paired with UCS
eg) just ring the bell and don’t present food
You do NOT unlearn the bond between the UCS and CS - it is just masked
Index of Strength
If something is learned very well it will take longer to become extinct because it had a high index of strength (like phobias)
Savings
Doesn’t take as long to train a second time around
Generalization
Degree of responding to a stimuli similar to training stimulus
The narrower the generalization gradient the better
Instrumental or Operant Conditioning
Association of a stimulus and a response is strengthened by reinforcement
Works through law of effect
Law of Effect
When you reinforce behaviour you are making it more likely to occur - strengthen bond
When you punish a behaviour you make it less likely to occur - weaken bond
Thorndike
Model of Instrumental Conditioning
1) Stimulus situation has a dominant response
2) Choose and reinforce a target response
3) Stimulus situation now results in target response
Is the response contingent in instrumental conditioning?
yes
Positive vs negative
Give vs take away
When is punishment effective?
Only if it happens quickly after, consistent and aversive
Which works best: positive/negative punishment/reinforcement?
Discrimination training!!!
Punish inappropriate behaviour, then quickly start rewarding proper behaviour - AKA a combination
Can reinforcement be delayed?
Yes but most effective if presented immediately
BF Skinner
Gave us operant conditioning
Like instrumental but better
Introduced operants: work on environment to produce response
Shaping
train an animal to do something using a method of successive approximation
What are the schedules of reinforcement?
1) Continuous: reinforce every correct response
2) Fixed Ratio: every nth correct response
3) Fixed Interval: first correct response after _time
4) Variable Ratio: on average, every nth correct response
5) Variable Interval: on average, first correct response after _time
always has to be a correct response
What has the fastest response?
variable ratio schedule
Unique to fixed ratios
Pause after reinforcement
With FI - there is a scallop curve - AKA long pause like they know the interval is over
Which is most resistant to extinction?
VI
Cognitive Approach
Learning not mechanical “stamping in”, but involves formation of cognitions
Escape response
animal is presented with aversive stimulus and it escapes it
Avoidance response
A few seconds before an aversive stimulus, there is a warning stimulus
2 Factor Theory of Avoidance
1) Classical: UCS (shock) –> UCR (fear) = CS (light) –> CS (fear)
2) Operant: End of light is a negative reinforcement
Reinforcement
Teaches contingency - reward is contingent on performance of target response
Contingency is not perfect
Learned Helplessness
Animals who previously had no control over their environment learned there was nothing they could do to stop shock
No contingency between response and reinforcement
Perception of control study
Ability to tolerate noise levels when doing various tasks
As soon as you introduce a panic button that will shut off noise, no one ever uses it but people are able to work better just thinking they have the option
Illusion of control study
At the end of questionnaire, gives each participant a lottery ticket for 100 dollars. Half got to pull their own ticket and half got theirs pulled by the experimenter. Then they all asked it they would sell their lottery ticket. People who were in control and pulled their own were less likely to sell
Symptoms of major depression
Loss of appetite Sleep disturbance Fatigue Little, if any, interest in sex Suicide
When is the risk of suicide highest in people with depression?
Risk increases as patient comes out of depression
Risk is low while patient is in worst depression
Highest on weekend leaves shortly after discharge
Simple Phobia
Intense, irrational fear of object or situation
Common
Anxiety disorder
Over 200 recognized
Agoraphobia
Open spaces
Claustrophobia
Enclosed spaces
Aracnophobia
Spiders
Triskaidekaphobia
Number 13
Uxorphobia
One’s wife
How to treat a phobia?
Exposure: fear is viewed as CR, extinguish by repeated presentation
Types: flooding, implosion, counter conditioning, systematic desensitization, aversion therapy
Flooding
Patient continuously presented with fearful object until no longer produces a response
Implosion
Patient must continuously imagine fearful situation
Counter-conditioning
Replace CR of fear with a more pleasant one
Identify a pleasant UCS-UCR, use fearful object as CS and then this replaces CR
Systematic Desensitization
1) train client in muscle relaxation on cue
2) client imagines fearful situation and receives relaxation cue
3) increase intensity of feared object gradually
4) feared object now results in positive CR
Which treatment is best for fear response?
Systematic desensitization
Aversion Therapy
Behaviour is only maintained because of reinforcement contingency (staying in house avoids fear) - to change behaviour, change contingency
Eg) alcoholic given Antabuse so drinking causes illness
Learning
Experiences produces a relatively enduring change in organisms behaviour
Habituation
Decrease in strength of a response to a repated stimulus
Sensitization
An increased in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus
Acquisition
Refers to the period during which a response is being learned
Spontaneous Recovery
After a rest period following extinction, presentation of the CS elicits a weaker CR that extinguishes more quickly than before
Discrimination
The occurrence of a CR to one stimulus but not to another
Operant behaviour includes 3 kinds of events
1) antecedents - stimuli that are present before a behaviour occurs
2) Behaviours - that the organism emits
3) consequences - that follow the behaviours
Primary vs. Secondary/Conditioned Forces
Primary - satisfy basic biological needs: food and water
Secondary - things you like but don’ need
Delay of gratification
The ability to forgo immediate rewards for delayed but more satisfying outcomes
Chaining
An operant conditioning procedure used to develop a sequence of responses by reinforcing each response with the opportunity to perform the next response
Token Economies
A procedure in which desirable behaviours are reinforced with tokens or points that can later be redeemed for other reinforcers
Applied Behavioural Analysis
A process (also called behaviour modification) in which operant conditioning is combined with scientific data collection to solve individual and societal problems
Preparedness
The notion that evolutionary factors have produced an innate readiness to learn certain associations that have had survival implications in the past
Instinctive Drift
A conditioned response drifts back toward instinctive behaviour
Insight
The sudden perception of a useful relationship that helps to solve a problem
Cognitive Map
A mental representation of the spatial layout of an area
True or false: the most important factor in classical conditioning is not how often the CS and UCS are paired, but how well the CS predicts the appearance of the UCS
true
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement, but which is not displayed until reinforcement is later introduced into the situation
Observational Learning
Learning through observing the behaviour of a model
Involves mirror neurons
Also known as modelling
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Modelling as four step process:
1) Attention: must pay attention to models behaviour
2) Retention: retain the info in memory
3) Reproduction: must be physically capable of reproducing behaviour
4) motivation: be motivated to display the behaviour
