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Intro to Psychology > Chapters 6 & 7: Learning and Memory > Flashcards

Chapters 6 & 7: Learning and Memory Flashcards

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1
Q

Learning

A

a relatively permanent change in behavior as a result of experience

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2
Q

Why do psychologists who study learning usually stick with the behaviorist perspective?

A

the behaviorist tradition of establishing cause and effect enables relationships to be found between stimuli and behavior

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3
Q

Non-associative learning

A

not forming associations between stimuli during learning

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4
Q

How does learning occur?

A

it is a result of repeated exposure of a stimulus

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5
Q

Habituation

A

after being repeatedly exposed to a stimulus you begin to decrease your response to it

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6
Q

What distinguishes habituation from sensory adaptation?

A

sensory adaptation occurs at the level of the sensory organs, and habituation occurs in the Central Nervous System (CNS)

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7
Q

Dishabituation

A

introducing a novel stimulus to decrease habituation to former stimulus

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8
Q

Sensitization

A

increased response to a stimulus after repeated exposure

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9
Q

When you become sensitized to something, is the response more localized or a full-body effect?

A

Full-body effect

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10
Q

Classical conditioning

A

forming an association between a stimulus and a response in the environment

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11
Q

Reflex

A

involuntary response to a particular stimulus

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12
Q

What are the two types of reflexes?

A

conditioned and unconditioned

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13
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus

A

any stimulus that causes us to respond a certain way without learning

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14
Q

Unconditioned Response

A

automatic response to unconditioned stimulus

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15
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

does not elicit any type of responding

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16
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

a previously neutral stimulus (NS) that, after repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus (US) becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned response

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17
Q

Conditioned response

A

learned response to a conditioned stimulus (CS)

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18
Q

Classical conditioning

A

presenting a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned, unlearned stimulus, and through those pairings that neutral stimulus becomes what we call a conditioned stimulus

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19
Q

Acquisition

A

development of a conditioned response as a result of pairing the conditioned stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus

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20
Q

Contingency

A

you will generally condition faster if a stimulus is more intense

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21
Q

Contiguity

A

the conditioned stimulus has to appear close in time to the unconditioned stimulus

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22
Q

What did Pavlov believe had to happen for an association to be formed with a stimulus?

A

that there had to be some kind of temporal contiguity

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23
Q

Short delayed procedure

A

if the conditioned stimulus proceeds the unconditioned stimulus by less than 30 seconds

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24
Q

When the US is absent the ____ is absent

A

CS

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25
Q

Excitatory conditioning

A

the CS is exciting or getting you ready for the US

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26
Q

Test trial

A

present CS without the UCS and measure the magnitude of the CR

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27
Q

Conditioning trials

A

where we’re learning the relationship between the CS and the US and presenting the conditioned stimulus

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28
Q

Extinction

A

present CS without the UCS repeatedly

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29
Q

What does extinction decrease?

A

the strength of the conditioned response

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30
Q

Unconditioned stimulus association is eliminated by extinction (true/false)

A

false

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31
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

after following extinction, waiting at least 24 hours after extinction occurs and reintroducing CS to get a renewed response to it

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32
Q

Renewal effect

A

changing an aspect of the initial trial to get a stronger renewed response to the CS

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33
Q

Generalization

A

conditioning to a trained CS generalizes to similar stimuli

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34
Q

How would you perform a test trial for generalization?

A

present CS (no UCS), see how large of a CR occurs to them

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35
Q

Generalization gradient

A

a graphic description of the strength of responding in the presence of stimuli that are similar to the original condition or training stimulus, the CS

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36
Q

As you move ______ from training stimulus the response rate starts to _______

A

further away, decline

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37
Q

Discrimination

A

conditioning a person or non-human animal to respond only following the training stimulus

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38
Q

High-order or Second-order conditioning

A

using more than one conditioned stimulus to pair a conditioned and unconditioned stimulus through a series of trials

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39
Q

Sensory Pre-Conditioning

A

begins with two stimuli that are already associated potentially in our environment

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40
Q

Biological Preparedness

A

the presence of certain conditioned stimuli incites an unconditioned response

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41
Q

A conditioned taste aversion often occurs due to feeling sick after consuming a specific food or drink you’ve just had for the first time

A

True

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42
Q

Classical Conditioning can increase our immunity

A

True

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43
Q

What is the nature of a classical conditioning response?

A

involuntary (reflexive)

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44
Q

What is the nature of an operant conditioning response?

A

usually voluntary, but can be both voluntary and involuntary

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45
Q

What is the significance of E.L. Thorndike’s puzzle boxes?

A

they showed that the connection between stimuli in the box and the escape response was strengthened by reinforcement

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46
Q

Law of Effect

A

a response that’s followed by a pleasant consequence, which is a reward, will tend to be repeated

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47
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

consequences influence future probability of behavior

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48
Q

What is shaping?

A

occurs when you reinforce successive approximations, which are gradual steps to the required response

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49
Q

What are the two main types of operant consequences?

A

reinforcer and punisher

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50
Q

Reinforcer

A

an event that follows a behavior and results in an increase in the future probability of that behavior

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51
Q

What is a primary reinforcer?

A

satisfies one of your biological needs

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52
Q

What is a secondary reinforcer?

A

acquires its value through conditioning, through learning

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53
Q

Punisher

A

an event that follows a behavior and results in a decrease in the future probability of that behavior

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54
Q

What is a primary punisher?

A

innately punishing

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55
Q

What is a secondary punisher?

A

becomes a learned punisher

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56
Q

Positive Reinforcement

A

presenting a pleasant stimulus

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57
Q

Negative Reinforcement

A

removing an unpleasant stimulus

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58
Q

Positive Punishment

A

presenting an unpleasant stimulus

59
Q

Negative Punishment

A

removing a pleasant stimulus

60
Q

What is three-term contingency?

A

Antecedent- Behavior- Consequence

61
Q

Antecedent

A

cues that can tell you whether the consequence for your behavior will occur

62
Q

What are the two types of behaviors?

A

desired and undesired

63
Q

What are the types of consequences?

A

positive and negative reinforcement, punishment, extinction, escape/avoidance

64
Q

What is the schedule of reinforcement?

A

pattern of delivering the reinforcement during a behavioral trial

65
Q

Continuous reinforcement

A

every behavior is reinforced

66
Q

Intermittent reinforcement

A

only reinforcing behaviors some of the time

67
Q

Ratio schedules

A

number of responses

68
Q

Interval schedules

A

based on time; how much time has elapsed since last reinforcement

69
Q

Fixed ratio (FR)

A

giving the reinforcer on a fixed basis after # of times desired behavior occurred

70
Q

Variable ratio (VR)

A

occurs based on an average ratio; desired outcome will not occur every trial

71
Q

Fixed interval (FI)

A

occurring regularly but only after a certain amount of time has elapsed

72
Q

Variable interval (VI)

A

based on an average; it’s irregular, but it’s also based on time

73
Q

Extinction

A

reinforcement no longer follows behavior

74
Q

Generalization

A

operant response occurs to a new stimulus that is similar to the stimulus present during original learning

75
Q

Discrimination

A

operant response is made to one stimulus but not to another

76
Q

Stimulus generalization

A

the tendency for a behavioral response that has been reinforced (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus to occur (or be suppressed) in the presence of a similar stimulus

77
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

the tendency of responses to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not another that differs from it on some dimension

78
Q

Latent learning

A

learning can occur in the absence of an immediate reward

79
Q

Observational learning

A

learning that occurs by watching someone else

80
Q

Social learning

A

when we see changes in behavior that are brought about by interactions with others/observing others

81
Q

Sensory memory

A

a brief storage memory for all of our senses

82
Q

Attention

A

a type of control process that helps to shift information from one memory store to another

83
Q

Encoding

A

where sensory and perceptual information is transformed into memory traces

84
Q

Sensory buffer

A

brief information about raw stimulus held for fractions of a second to a few seconds

85
Q

Iconic memory

A

brief impression or afterimage that you got from a sensory stimulus that fades away very quickly unless it’s attended to

86
Q

What did Sperling’s study show?

A

that when showed a 3 by 4 array of letters within a fraction of a second, participants only remembered approximately 4-5 letters (whole report), and when participants were shown a similar array after each row had been associated with a sound, they reported remembering approximately 10-12 letters (partial report)

87
Q

Is delay time longer between iconic memory or echoic memory?

A

echoic memory

88
Q

What is the purpose of the serial position curve?

A

it defines the distinction between long-term and short-term memory

89
Q

Primacy effect

A

being better able to recall the first few words in the list

90
Q

Recency effect

A

being better able to recall the last few words in the list

91
Q

Central executive

A

coordinates attention and the exchange of information among the other memory components

92
Q

Phonological loop

A

has to do with the rehearsal of sounds and uses an auditory or phonological code

93
Q

Visuospatial sketchpad

A

maintains visual images and also spatial layouts in a visual spatial code

94
Q

Episodic buffer

A

integrating the elements from the other memory stores that are getting activated

95
Q

Information from working memory is lost after ______ seconds.

A

18-20

96
Q

As determined by George Miller, the number of items that can be stored in auditory memory is________.

A

7 + or - 2

97
Q

As determined by Nelson Cohen, how many chunks of information can be stored in auditory memory?

A

4

98
Q

What is the word length effect?

A

more information can be held in shorter words

99
Q

Long-term memory storage is finite (True/False)

A

false

100
Q

What are the two types of long-term memory?

A

declarative/explicit and nondeclarative/implicit

101
Q

What distinguishes declarative/explicit memory?

A

memories can be verbalized

102
Q

Semantic memory

A

knowing things; often factual information most people know

103
Q

Episodic memory

A

your memories of past experiences

104
Q

Nondeclarative/implicit memory

A

memories you have that produce behaviors that you can perform without awareness

105
Q

Procedural memory

A

your skills and your habits

106
Q

Emotional responses

A

classical conditioning involving the reflex arc or even evolving to involve emotional responses to stimuli

107
Q

Priming

A

when you’re given a prime word, and that word causes activation to spread in your brain to related words

108
Q

Visual analysis

A

shallow, produces fairly poor memory

109
Q

Acoustic/rhyme analysis

A

moderate level of processing that produces better memory

110
Q

Conceptual or semantic analysis

A

causes a deep level of processing and produces the best memory

111
Q

Semantic encoding

A

processing the concept’s meaning

112
Q

The Generation Effect

A

requires you to produce information rather than just read it

113
Q

Paired Associations

A

forming pairs to link information together

114
Q

Hierarchies

A

structured outline of concepts

115
Q

Self-Referent Encoding

A

use your own examples of concepts

116
Q

Mnemonic devices

A

techniques to improve memory for specific information

117
Q

Acronyms

A

series of letters that stand for something

118
Q

Acrostics

A

sentence composed to help you remember specific concepts

119
Q

Narratives

A

writing a story to remember information

120
Q

Rhymes

A

creating a rhyme to remember something, a moderate level of processing

121
Q

Linking

A

images that contain the information

122
Q

Alan Paveo

A

dual code theory

123
Q

Dual code theory

A

both visual and verbal information used to represent concepts

124
Q

Method of Loci

A

locations along a path or narrative

125
Q

Pegword method

A

taking a familiar rhyme, each line of which is a peg, and associating a specific concept with each peg

126
Q

Encoding specificity

A

retrieval is most effective when it occurs in the same contexts as encoding

127
Q

Flashbulb memories

A

extremely vivid and detailed memories about an event

128
Q

Is it better to study over multiple sessions or to cram the night before an exam?

A

study over multiple sessions

129
Q

Encoding failure

A

information never transferred into long-term memory in the first place

130
Q

Storage decay

A

information in long-term memory disappears with the passage of time

131
Q

Retrieval failure

A

information is supposedly in long-term memory but it is unable to be retrieved back into short-term memory

132
Q

Proactive interference

A

old information is better recalled than newer information

133
Q

Retroactive interference

A

new information is better recalled than older information

134
Q

What is the significance of Herman Von Ebbinghaus?

A

he is the founder of psychological memory research, and he discovered that most memory is lost within the first few hours

135
Q

Amnesias are usually a result of what?

A

injury or disease

136
Q

Amnesia

A

profound loss of memory ability

137
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

memory for past is lost; most severe for recent events

138
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

inability or limited ability to form new memories after onset of amnesia

139
Q

Schemas

A

organized clusters of memories that contain your knowledge about events and objects and ideas

140
Q

Accommodation

A

constantly adding to and changing our schemas

141
Q

False memory

A

remembering an event that did not occur

142
Q

Misinformation effect

A

information occurring after an event alters memory for that event

143
Q

Source monitoring and source misattribution

A

misidentifying where information came from or who gave it to you

144
Q

Confabulation

A

confusing events that happened to someone else with one that happened to you

Intro to Psychology (3 decks)

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