chapters 1-9

Question 1

what is development

Answer 1

• lifelong: does not cease at adolescence, we learn until we die, continuous / discontinuous
• multidimensional: physical, emotional, cognitive, social
• plastic: mailable, open to experiences, ability to be moulded and changed
• embedded in context: never a single cause, all theories reflect the norms of the time, must be understood and interpreted in this context, inner vs outer
• inner: intrapsychic, biological, psychological, spiritual
• outer: environmental, ecological

Question 2

what are the domains of development

Answer 2

• physical (body)
• cognitive (thinking, language, remembering, recalling)
• psychosocial (emotions, relations, interactions, personal identity, social relationships)

Question 3

is development continuous or discontinuous

Answer 3

• continuous: gradual development, achievements build quantitatively
• discontinuous: development occurs in distinct stages or steps, with each step resulting in behaviour that is qualitatively different from behaviour at earlier steps

Question 4

describe bronfenbrenner’s ecological systems theory

Answer 4

• contextual, influences on individuals, overlapping
• microsystem: face to face, families, schools, peers
• mesosystem: relationships between two or more microsystem, home, workplace
• exosystem: indirect relationships / effects, spouses workplace, local government
• macrosystem: overarching institutions, take smaller systems into account, social policy

Question 5

describe freud’s psychodynamic theory

Answer 5

• basis: unconscious forces act to determine personality and behaviour as individuals resolve conflicts between biological drives and social expectations
• id: pleasure, principle, dreams, impulses, present at birth, unconscious, satisfy a person’s inborn biological needs / desires, maximise pleasure and avoid discomfort
• ego: rational, conscious, problem-solving, learns to delay their desire for instant satisfaction and redirect it into more realistic and appropriate ways to meet their needs
• superego: moral and ethical, end of early childhood, conscience, regulate their moral conduct
• psychosexual stages: healthy personality, developmental changes result from conflicts amongst id, ego and superego, stages are oral, anal, phallic, latency and genital

Question 6

describe eriksons psychosocial theory

Answer 6

• basis: internal psychological and external social factors, stage = crisis which must be resolved, 8 crises
• trust vs mistrust: birth - 18 months, oral sensory activity, develop trusting relationships, mistrust when handled harshly / wait too long for basic needs to be met
• autonomy vs shame and doubt: 1-2, muscular anal activity, control over bodily functions, motor / mental skills, decision making
• initiative vs guilt: 3-6, locomotor genital activity, testing limits of self-assertion and purposefulness, exploration, develop initiative, over-control (guilt for showing initiative)
• industry vs diffusion: 7-11, mastery, competence and productivity, work with others, industrious in cognitive, physical and emotional ways
• identity vs role confusion: adolescence, identity, coherent self-concept (fidelity), search for meaning / purpose, vocation, confusion (identity, responsibilities, roles)
• intimacy vs isolation: 20-30, achievement of intimate relationship / career direction
• generativity vs stagnation: 40-60, fulfilment through creative, productive activity, contribute to future generations, failure = absence of meaningful accomplishment
• ego integrity vs despair: 60 onward, integrity of life, wisdom, reflection, dissatisfaction of death

Question 7

describe piaget’s cognitive theory

Answer 7

• basis: cognitive development, interaction with environment, observational learning, working towards formal operational
• sensorimotor: birth-2, object permanence, use of senses, coordination of sensory and motor
• pre-operational: 2-7, language and symbolic representation, egocentric view, lack logic
• concrete operational: 7-11, logical / mental operations performed in observable situations or on actual objects (childhood), hierarchies
• formal operational: 11-adult, systematic solution of abstract / hypothetical / logic problems mental manipulations using internal representations alone
• developmental process: through assimilation (new problems are solved using existing schemes), accomodation (existing schemes are altered, modified or adapted) and equilibrium (stability)

Question 8

describe kohlberg’s theory of moral development

Answer 8

• basis: furthered piaget’s theory, stages of moral judgement
• pre conventional level: childhood, avoiding punishments and getting rewards, heteronomous morality (ethics of punishment and obedience) and instrumental purpose (ethics of market exchange)
• conventional level: social rules, interpersonal conformity (ethics of peer opinion, social system orientation) and conformity to social system (ethics of law and order)
• post conventional level: moral principles, social contract orientation (ethics of social contract) and individual rights and ethics of self-chosen universal principles

Question 9

describe vygotsky’s sociocultural theory

Answer 9

• basis: imitative learning, socialisation through play and internalisation of cultural / social norms
• zone of proximal development: cannot yet accomplish without active assistance from adults and peers with greater knowledge, similar to bronfenbrenner

Question 10

what are two learning theories / types of conditioning

Answer 10

• classical conditioning (pavlov): neutral stimulus is paired with a stimulus that leads to a reflexive response, conditioned / unconditioned, reflex learning
• operant conditioning (skinner): acts or operates on the environment through spontaneous, voluntary behaviour, learn through observations, reinforcement, punishment, extinction, shaping

Question 11

what is the social clock theory

Answer 11

• basis:‘on time’ in following the age-appropriate social timetable or ‘off time’ with peers of the following age-appropriate group, those ‘on time’ experience fewer difficulties
• normative events: transitions that follow an age / history appropriate social timetable
• non-normative events: any point in time, normative events that occur ‘off time’, unpredictable

Question 12

describe schaie’s stage theory

Answer 12

• basis: developmental contextual thinking
• acquisitive: childhood / adolescence, basic skills, sensorimotor, pre / concrete / formal operations
• achieving: early adulthood, meet personal goals
• responsible: middle adulthood, integrate responsibility to others with personal goals
• executive: middle adulthood, meet needs of larger societal groups
• reintegrative: late adulthood, refocus on personal interests and values

Question 13

what are the types of parenting skills and styles

Answer 13

• authoritative: ‘firm but flexible’, child focused, participative positive reinforcement in decision making processes, emotionally supportive
• outcome: high self esteem, internalised moral standards, maturity, academic success
• authoritarian: high level of control, inflexible style, responsive at times with some respectfulness of the child’s thoughts and feelings, negative reinforcement
• outcome: anxiety, withdrawal, low self-esteem, insensitiveness
• permissive: low level control, reluctant to have limits / rules, warm and responsive, control messages are mixed and confusing (difficult to learn societal behavioural boundaries)
• outcome: impulsivity, disobedience and rebelliousness
• uninvolved: low level control, emotional detachment / immaturity, relationship disharmony
• outcome: poor social-emotional development, social alienation, neglect issues and low self esteem

Question 14

what is intelligence

Answer 14

• combination of: environmental adaptability, ability to learn from experience, abstract reasoning, ability to integrate new and old knowledge, social skills, musical ability and physical skills
• gardner’s multiple intelligences: language, musical, logical, spatial, kinaesthetic / body balance and interpersonal / intrapersonal skill, abilities are distinctive (not overlapping)

Question 15

describe fluid vs crystallised intelligence

Answer 15

• fluid: increase due to process of maturation, ability to process new information in novel situations, reasoning, which is central to almost any definition of intelligence
• depends on neurological development than the transmission of formal knowledge about one’s culture
• crystallised: environmental influences leading to general knowledge and comprehension learnt cognitive processes / primary abilities