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BIO A&P > Chapters 1-6 > Flashcards

Chapters 1-6 Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What is anatomy and physiology?

A

Anatomy is the study of the internal & external structures and physiology is how living organisms perform vital functions

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2
Q

What are the levels of organization?

A

Atoms, Molecules, Cells, Tissues, Organs, Organ Systems, Organisms

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3
Q

What are the 11 organ systems?

A

Integument, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive.

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4
Q

What is homeostasis and its significance?

A

the existence of a relatively stable internal environment. maintaining homeostasis is the foundation of all physiology

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5
Q

What is the difference between disorder and disease?

A

Disorder is any abnormality of structure or function, disease is a disorder characterized by a set of signs ans symptoms

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6
Q

How does an organism regulate itself?

A

autoregulation=occurs when a cell or system adjusts its activities automatically. extrinsic regulation=when the nervous system or endocrine systems cause a change

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7
Q

What is the differences between nervous and endocrine regulation?

A

Nervous=reacts quicker, specific, short-lived. Endocrine=reacts slower, wide-ranging, lasts longer.

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8
Q

What is a NEGATIVE FEEDBACK?

A

Stimulus produces a response that opposes or stops original stimulus, tends to minimize change, process is dynamic. ex: temperature, blood sugar, most systems

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9
Q

What is POSITIVE FEEDBACK?

A

Stimulus produces a response that increases or enhances original stimulus. Tends to produce extreme responses, escalating cycle (loop). ex: childbirth, blood clotting.

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10
Q

What are the parts of the atom?

A

protons (+ charge part of nucleus), neutrons (uncharged part of nucleus), electrons (- charged small particles that circle the nucleus in a cloud/shell)

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11
Q

What four molecules make up 96% of body mass?

A

Oxygen, Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen

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12
Q

What are 8 other important molecules in the body?

A

calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chlorine, magnesium, sulfur, iron, iodine

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13
Q

What is an ionic bond?

A

when opposite charged ions are attracted to each other

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14
Q

What are ions, cations and anions?

A

Ions=atoms that has gained or lost electrons & becomes + or - charged. cations=+ charged ion. anions=- charged ion

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15
Q

What is a covalent bond?

A

When two or more atoms share electrons, much stronger than ionic bonds

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16
Q

What is a nonpolar covalent bond?

A

two atoms share the electrons equally

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17
Q

What are polar covalent bonds?

A

one atom attracts the shared electron more, causes partial (+) and (-) ends

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18
Q

What is catalysis?

A

speed up reactions by lowering activation energy needed

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19
Q

What are enzymes?

A

special proteins to lower activation energy in living tissue, can not tolerate high heat or concentrations

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20
Q

What is the difference between exergonic and endergonic reactions?

A

exergonic rxns release more energy than they absorb, produce energy=breaking bonds. endergonic rxns require mre energy than released, absorb energy=building bonds.

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21
Q

What is a decomposition reaction?

A

the splitting up of larger molecules into smaller ones, usually gives off energy. Includes catabolism=breaking of substances in body and hydrolysis=use of water to split molecules

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22
Q

What are synthesis reactions?

A

combining substances to produce new larger molecules, usually requires energy. includes anabolism=the combining of substances in the body & dehydration synthesis=water is formed while joining reactants.

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23
Q

What is exchange and reversible reactions?

A

exchange=both compounds switch partners. reversible=when products can revert back to original reactants, surplus drives reaction.

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24
Q

What are the properties of water that make it the most important molecule in the body?

A

Solubility, reactivity, high heat capacity and lubrication. its required for 2/3 body weight.

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25
Q

What are electrolytes?

A

soluble inorganic molecules whose ions will conduct an electric charge.

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26
Q

Define hydrophilic and hydrophobic.

A

hydrophilic=water loving, interacts w/ H2O. hydrophobic=water hater, does not interact w/H2O

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27
Q

What does the pH scale measure?

A

concentration of hydrogen ions in factors of 10. neutral==pH of 7. Acidic=BELOW 7. Basic=ABOVE 7. Low pH, high acidity

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28
Q

What are salts and buffers?

A

salts=union of a cation (+) w/ an anion (-). buffers=compounds that stabilize pH, converts strong acids or bases into weak ones.

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29
Q

What are the functional groups of organic compounds?

A

Carboxyl (-COOH), Amino (-NH2), Hydroxyl (-OH), Phosphate (PO4)

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30
Q

What are carbohydrates and types of carbohydrates?

A

carbs=energy source. monosaccharide=simple sugar, ex. glucose, fructose, galactose. Disaccharides=two sugar molecules, ex. sucrose, maltose, lactose. Polysaccharides=long chain sugars, ex. glycogen, starch, cellulose.

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31
Q

What are lipids and types of lipids?

A

lipids=fats & oils, energy source, insoluble in water & blood. Fatty acid=long carbon chain with Hs, energy. Glycerides (mono, di, tri)=energy source. Steroids, hormones, cholesterol (structural component of cells, transport mechanism.

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32
Q

What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?

A

Saturated fats have carbon atom chains linked together by a single bond, ex. meat, dairy. Unsaturated fats have carbon atoms linked by double or triple bonds, ex. nuts, vegetable oil. mono=one double bond, poly=more than one double bond

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33
Q

What is protein and its functions?

A

Protein is long chains of amino acids. Functions=support, movement, transport proteins, pH buffer, enzymes, hormones, immunity.

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34
Q

What are the four structures of proteins?

A

There is the primary level: a chain of amino acids, secondary: alpha=helix or beta=pleated, tertiary: polypeptide folds in on itself (may be functional) and quaternary: two or more tertiary shapes bound together.

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35
Q

What is a fibrous protein? a globular protein?

A

Fibrous=structural, forms sheets or strands. globular=reactive, rounded, found in aqueous solutions (blood).

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36
Q

What is an enzyme?

A

Facilitates most rxns in the body.

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37
Q

Define cofactors.

A

must bind to an enzyme to activate the enzyme (ions).

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38
Q

What are coenzymes?

A

organic molecules that act as cofactors (vitamins)

39
Q

What happens when a protein is denatured?

A

the structure is broke down=heat or enzyme breaks peptide bonds

40
Q

What are glycoproteins and proteoglycans?

A

GP=large protein with a carbohydrate attached->can form enzymes, hormones, antibodies & structural components.

41
Q

What are nucleic acids, their functions and types?

A

NA=stores and processes information inside the cell (sugar+phosphategrp+nitrogenous base) DNA & RNA

42
Q

What are the high energy compounds?

A

The energy currency used by cells to store & obtain energy. ADP (2 phosphates) & ATP (3 phosphates).

43
Q

What is phosphorylation?

A

ADP gains a phosphate to make ATP (stores energy). When ATP is broken into ADP=releases energy

44
Q

What are cells and their properties?

A

building blocks of all plants & animals, smallest units that perform all vital physiological functions

45
Q

What are the two classes of cells?

A

somatic=all body cells except sex cells (diploid). sex (germ) cells=reproductive cells (sperm & eggs)

46
Q

What is the plasma membrane and its function?

A

separates cytosol (inside of cell) from extracellular fluid/interstitial fluid (all body fluids outside of cell). acts as a physical barrier, regulates exchange w/ env., structural support. made of phospholipid bilayer=barrier to ions & water soluble compounds.

47
Q

What are the six functions of membrane proteins?

A

anchoring proteins (stabilizers)=attach to inside/outside structures. recognition proteins (identifiers)=IDs cells normal/abnormal. enzymes=catalyze rxns. receptor proteins=binds, responds. carrier proteins+transport specific solutes through membrane. channels=regulate water flow, solutes through membrane

48
Q

What are the the functions of membrane carbohydrates? (proteoglycans, glycoproteins, glycolipids)

A

specificity in binding (receptors) & recognition (immune response).

49
Q

What are the types of permeability & transport?

A

permeability=freely, selectively, impermeable. transport=active, req energy. & passive, no energy.

50
Q

What is diffusion and the types of diffusion?

A

movement of molecules from high conc. to low. simple=diffuse straight through cell membrane. channel mediated=molecules pass through channels. osmosis=diffusion of water across membrane.

51
Q

What are the results of hypotonic, hypertonic and isotonic solutions?

A

hypotonic=less solutes, loses water through osmosis. hypertonic=more solutes, gains water. isotonic=a solution that does not cause osmotic flow of water.

52
Q

What is endocytosis and exocytosis?

A

endo=into cell, receptor-mediated=receptors (glycoproteins) bind target molecules, vesicles carry rec. & molecules into cell. pinocytosis, phagocytosis. exo=out of cell, discharges contents out of cell.

53
Q

what are the non-membranous organelles of the cell?

A

cytoskeleton (shape & strength), microvilli (increase surface area for absorption), cilia (moves fluids), centrioles (spindle apparatus), ribosomes (protein synthesis), proteasomes (disassembles damaged protein for recycling).

54
Q

What are the membranous organelles?

A

mitochondria (produces ATP), ER (synthesizes lipids & carbs), RER (protein & glycoprotein synthesis), golgi apparatus (secretory vesicles), lysosomes (clean up of cells), nucleus (cells control center).

55
Q

What are the parts of the nucleus?

A

nuclear membrane (dbl membrane), nucleoli (synthesizes RNA), nuclear pores (small communication passages), nucleosomes, chromatin (loosely coiled DNA), chromosomes (tightly coiled DNA), DNA (genes).

56
Q

Nucleus summary:

A

nucleus contains chromosomes, chromosomes contain DNA, DNA stores genetic instructions for proteins, proteins determine cell structure and function.

57
Q

What are the two processes of protein synthesis?

A

DNA->Transcription: mRNA copies DNA & leaves nucleus ->Translation: tRNA assembles protein.

58
Q

What are the steps of translation?

A

mRNA moves from nucleus to ribsomes in cytoplasm, tRNA delivers amino acids to mRNA, tRNA anticodon binds to mRNA codon. 1 mRNA codon translates to one amino acid. amino acids are joined w/ peptide binds.

59
Q

What is mitosis and the steps?

A

division of a cell that produces two identical daughter cells. IPMAT=Interphase (life as a cell), Prophase (chrome. coil, nuclear env disappear, centriole pairs move to their poles, spindles form), Metaphase (chrome. midline), anaphase (SFs pull chrome. apart), Telophase (reverse prophase & cytokinesis).

60
Q

what are oncogenes?

A

mutated genes that cause cancer, mutations disrupt normal controls over cell growth & division, cancers often begin where stem cells divide rapidly, more chrome copies, greater chance of error.

61
Q

Is a tumor and the the types of tumors?

A

neoplasm, enlarged mass of cells, abnormal cell growth & division. Benign=contained, not life threatening. Malignant= spread into surrounding tissues, start new tumors (metastasis).

62
Q

What are the types of cell junctions (how cells connect to form tissues)?

A

tight=very tight, does not allow H2O, interlocking web-like proteins. adhesion=very tight, forms belt of interlocking membrane proteins. desmesomes=like a button or spot weld, cell-cell. hemidesmesomes=half button, cell to basement membrane. gap=tiny fluid filled tubes, uses channel protein, allows some movement in & out cell.

63
Q

What are the kinds of epithelial tissue?

A

epthelia=covers internal & external surfaces. glands=produces secretions.

64
Q

what are the characteristics of epithelial tissue?

A

apical=top, basal=bottom. basal lamina=basement membrane. avascular=does not receive direct blood flow, regeneration=very fast (1-2days).

65
Q

What are the functions of epithelia tissue?

A

provides physical protection (physical and chemical), control permeability, provide sensation, produce specialized secretions.

66
Q

What are the types of simple (single layer) epithelia tissue?

A

squamous (flattened, cap. walls, air sacs, linings of body cavities), cuboidal (cube-shaped, excretion, secretion, absorption, ovaries, kidney tubules), columnar (ciliated-transportive, uterine tubes & noncliatied- protection, secretion, absorption, digestive tract)

67
Q

What are the types of stratified (multi-layered) epithelia tissue?

A

squamous=protection, skin, linings of body openings. cuboidal=absrption, protection, esophageal glands, around ovum. columnar=strengthen luminal walls, larger ducts like sweat, pancreas. transitional=distention, urinary bladder

68
Q

What are the types of pseudo stratified (false layers, same floor) epithelia tissue?

A

ciliated=goblet cells, protection, secretion, ciliary movement, linings of respiratory passage. nonciliated=irregular, secretion, male uretha

69
Q

What are the types of glands in the human body?

A

exocrine=ducts, produce secretions onto epithelia surfaces through ducts. endocrine=release hormones into interstitial fluid, no ducts.

70
Q

What are the three modes of secretion?

A

merocrine=released by vesicle (exocytosis), ex. sweat glands. arocrine=released by shedding cytoplasm, ex. mammary gland. holocrine=released by cells bursting, killing gland cells, ex. sebaceous gland.

71
Q

what is are the functions of connective tissue?

A

structural framework and to protect organs, store energy reserves, support & connect to other tissue, transport fluids & dissolved materials, defend against microorganisms

72
Q

What are the types of CT cells?

A

Fibroblasts (most), macrophages (eat pathogens and damaged cells), adipocytes (fat), mesenchymal (stem cells, res. to injury or infection), melanocytes (melanin), mast cells (inflammation, release histamine and heparin), lymphocytes (produce antibodies from plasma cells), microphages (phagocytic blood cells)

73
Q

What are the types of fibers in CT?

A

collagen, reticular, elastic

74
Q

What is collagen?

A

most common fibers in CTP, long, straight, unbranched, strong, flexible, resists force in 1 direction, tendons and ligaments.

75
Q

What are reticular fibers?

A

network of interwoven fibers, strong and flexible, resists force in many directions, stabilizes functional cells & structures, sheaths around organs.

76
Q

What are elastic fibers?

A

contain elastin, branched and wavy, return to original length after stretching , elastic ligaments of vertebrae

77
Q

What are the types of connective tissue proper?

A

loose=surrounds nerves & vessels, between muscles, beneath skin. dense regular=tendons, ligaments, deep skin layers. dense irregular=large arteries, dermis. reticular=lymph nodes, liver, spleen, bone marrow. adipose=fat cells. fluid=RBC, WBC, platelets, plasma. hemopoeitic=red bone marrow

78
Q

What are the types of cartilage?

A

hyaline cartilage, elastic cartilage, fibrocartilage.

79
Q

What is hyaline cartilage?

A

extremely fine collagenous fibers, flexible support, precursor to bone, joint surfaces, nose, fetal bones.

80
Q

what is elastic cartilage?

A

elastic fibers within a matrix, support, flexibility, external ear.

81
Q

What is fibrocartilage?

A

collagenous fibers w/in a matrix, support, compression, knee joint, intervertebral discs.

82
Q

What are the two types of bones?

A

compact=outer bones (tree rings). spongy=inner bone, weblike.

83
Q

Types of membranes?

A

mucous, serous, cutaneous, synovial

84
Q

describe mucous membranes.

A

line passageways that have external connections, ex. digestive, respiratory, urinary & reproductive tracts

85
Q

describe serous membranes

A

line cavities not open to the outside, has fluid to reduce friction

86
Q

describe cutaneous membranes

A

skin, surface of body, thick, waterproof & dry

87
Q

Describe synovial membranes

A

line articulating joint cavities, produce synovial fluid, protect ends of bones

88
Q

Where is the superficial fascia found?

A

between skin and organs

89
Q

Where is deep fascia found?

A

strong fibrous network, dense connective tissue

90
Q

Where is subserous fascia found?

A

between serous membranes and deep fascia

91
Q

What are the types of muscle tissue?

A

skeletal (skeletal muscles), cardiac muscle (heart muscle), smooth muscle (walls of blood vessels, digestive tract).

92
Q

What are the two types of nervous tissue?

A

neurons=nerve cells, perform electrical communication. neuroglia=support cells, repair and supply nutrients to neurons, anchor neurons.

93
Q

What is the structure of a neuron?

A

dendrites are short branches extending from the cell body, receive incoming signals, the cell body contains the nucleus=control center. the axon is a long thing extension of the cell body, carries outgoing e-signals and synaptic terminals sends message to the next cell.

BIO A&P (4 decks)

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